1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
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12 @node Fundamental concepts
13 @chapter Fundamental concepts
15 You've seen in the Tutorial how to produce beautifully printed
16 music from a simple text file. This section introduces the
17 concepts and techniques required to produce equally beautiful
18 but more complex scores.
21 * How LilyPond input files work::
22 * Voices contain music::
23 * Contexts and engravers::
24 * Extending the templates::
28 @node How LilyPond input files work
29 @section How LilyPond input files work
31 The LilyPond input format is quite free-form, giving experienced
32 users a lot of flexibility to structure their files however they
33 wish. But this flexibility can make things confusing for new
34 users. This section will explain some of this structure, but may
35 gloss over some details in favor of simplicity. For a complete
36 description of the input format, see @ruser{File structure}.
39 * Introduction to the LilyPond file structure::
40 * Score is a (single) compound musical expression::
41 * Nesting music expressions::
42 * On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties::
45 @node Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
46 @subsection Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
49 @cindex file structure
51 A basic example of a LilyPond input file is
54 \version @w{"@version{}"}
57 @var{...compound music expression...} % all the music goes here!
64 There are many variations of this basic pattern, but this
65 example serves as a useful starting place.
74 Up to this point none of the examples you have seen have used a
75 @code{\score@{@}} command. This is because LilyPond automatically
76 adds the extra commands which are needed when you give it simple
77 input. LilyPond treats input like this:
86 as shorthand for this:
103 In other words, if the input contains a single music expression,
104 LilyPond will interpret the file as though the music expression
105 was wrapped up inside the commands shown above.
107 @cindex implicit contexts
108 @cindex contexts, implicit
110 @strong{A word of warning!} Many of the examples in the LilyPond
111 documentation will omit the @code{\new Staff} and @code{\new Voice}
112 commands, leaving them to be created implicitly. For simple
113 examples this works well, but for more complex examples, especially
114 when additional commands are used, the implicit creation of contexts
115 can give surprising results, maybe creating extra unwanted staves.
116 The way to create contexts explicitly is explained in
117 @ref{Contexts and engravers}.
119 @warning{When entering more than a few lines of music it is
120 advisable to always create staves and voices explicitly.}
122 For now, though, let us return to the first example and examine the
123 @code{\score} command, leaving the others to default.
125 A @code{\score} block must always contain just one music expression,
126 and this must appear immediately after the @code{\score} command.
127 Remember that a music expression could be anything from a single
128 note to a huge compound expression like
133 @var{...insert the whole score of a Wagner opera in here...}
139 Since everything is inside @code{@{ ... @}}, it counts
140 as one music expression.
142 As we saw previously, the @code{\score} block can contain other
165 Note that these three commands -- @code{\header}, @code{\layout} and
166 @code{\midi} -- are special: unlike many other commands which begin
167 with a backward slash (@code{\}) they are @emph{not} music expressions
168 and are not part of any music expression. So they may be placed
169 inside a @code{\score} block or outside it. In fact, these commands
170 are commonly placed outside the @code{\score} block -- for example,
171 @code{\header} is often placed above the @code{\score} command, as the
172 example at the beginning of this section shows.
174 Two more commands you have not previously seen are
175 @code{\layout @{ @}} and @code{\midi @{@}}. If these appear as
176 shown they will cause LilyPond to produce a printed output and a
177 MIDI output respectively. They are described fully in the
178 Notation Reference -- @ruser{Score layout}, and
179 @ruser{Creating MIDI files}.
181 @cindex scores, multiple
182 @cindex book block, implicit
183 @cindex implicit book block
187 You may code multiple @code{\score} blocks. Each will be
188 treated as a separate score, but they will be all combined into
189 a single output file. A @code{\book} command is not necessary
190 -- one will be implicitly created. However, if you would like
191 separate output files from one @code{.ly} file then the
192 @code{\book} command should be used to separate the different
193 sections: each @code{\book} block will produce a
194 separate output file.
198 Every @code{\book} block creates a separate output file (e.g., a
199 PDF file). If you haven't explicitly added one, LilyPond wraps
200 your entire input code in a @code{\book} block implicitly.
202 Every @code{\score} block is a separate chunk of music within a
205 @cindex layout block, effect of location
207 Every @code{\layout} block affects the @code{\score} or
208 @code{\book} block in which it appears -- i.e., a @code{\layout}
209 block inside a @code{\score} block affects only that @code{\score}
210 block, but a @code{\layout} block outside of a @code{\score} block
211 (and thus in a @code{\book} block, either explicitly or
212 implicitly) will affect every @code{\score} in that @code{\book}.
214 For details see @ruser{Multiple scores in a book}.
218 Another great shorthand is the ability to define variables (see
219 @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}. All the templates use this
222 melody = \relative c' @{
231 When LilyPond looks at this file, it takes the value of
232 @code{melody} (everything after the equals sign) and inserts it
233 whenever it sees @code{\melody}. There's nothing special about
234 the names -- it could be @code{melody}, @code{global},
236 @code{pianorighthand}, or @code{foofoobarbaz}. For more details,
237 see @ref{Saving typing with variables and functions}.
238 Remember that you can use almost any name you like as long
239 as it contains just alphabetic characters and is distinct from
240 LilyPond command names. The exact
241 limitations on variable names are detailed in
242 @ruser{File structure}.
246 For a complete definition of the input format, see
247 @ruser{File structure}.
250 @node Score is a (single) compound musical expression
251 @subsection Score is a (single) compound musical expression
256 @cindex contents of a score block
257 @cindex score block, contents of
258 @cindex compound music expression
259 @cindex music expression, compound
261 We saw the general organization of LilyPond input files in the
262 previous section, @ref{Introduction to the LilyPond file structure}.
263 But we seemed to skip over the most important part: how do we figure
264 out what to write after @code{\score}?
266 We didn't skip over it at all. The big mystery is simply that
267 there @emph{is} no mystery. This line explains it all:
270 @emph{A @code{\score} block must begin with a compound music expression.}
274 To understand what is meant by a music expression and a compound
275 music expression, you may find it useful to review the tutorial,
276 @ref{Music expressions explained}. In that section, we saw how to
277 build big music expressions from small pieces -- we started from
278 notes, then chords, etc. Now we're going to start from a big
279 music expression and work our way down. For simplicity, we'll use
280 just a singer and piano in our example. We don't need a
281 @code{StaffGroup} for this ensemble, which simply groups a number
282 of staves together with a bracket at the left, but we do need
283 staves for a singer and a piano, though.
288 \new Staff = "singer" <<
290 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
297 Here we have given names to the staves -- @qq{singer} and
298 @qq{piano}. This is not essential here, but it is a useful habit
299 to cultivate so that you can see at a glance what each stave is
302 Remember that we use @code{<< ... >>} instead of @code{@{ ... @}} to
303 show simultaneous music. This causes the vocal part and piano part
304 to appear one above the other in the score. The @code{<< ... >>}
305 construct would not be necessary for the Singer staff in the example
306 above if it were going to contain only one sequential music
307 expression, but @code{<< ... >>} rather than braces is necessary if
308 the music in the Staff is to contain two or more simultaneous
309 expressions, e.g. two simultaneous Voices, or a Voice with lyrics.
310 We're going to have a voice with lyrics, so angle brackets are
311 required. We'll add some real music later; for now let's just put
312 in some dummy notes and lyrics. If you've forgotten how to add lyrics
313 you may wish to review @code{\addlyrics} in @ref{Setting simple songs}.
315 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
318 \new Staff = "singer" <<
319 \new Voice = "vocal" { c'1 }
322 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
323 \new Staff = "upper" { c'1 }
324 \new Staff = "lower" { c'1 }
331 Now we have a lot more details. We have the singer's staff: it
332 contains a @code{Voice} (in LilyPond, this term refers to a set of
333 notes, not necessarily vocal notes -- for example, a violin
334 generally plays one voice) and some lyrics. We also have a piano
335 staff: it contains an upper staff (right hand) and a lower staff
336 (left hand), although the lower staff has yet to be given a bass
339 At this stage, we could start filling in notes. Inside the curly
340 braces next to @code{\new Voice = "vocal"}, we could start writing
348 But if we did that, the @code{\score} section would get pretty
349 long, and it would be harder to understand what was happening. So
350 let's use variables instead. These were introduced at the end
351 of the previous section, remember? To ensure the contents of the
352 @code{text} variable are interpreted as lyrics we preface them with
353 @code{\lyricmode}. Like @code{\addlyrics}, this switches the input
354 mode to lyrics. Without that, LilyPond would try to interpret the
355 contents as notes, which would generate errors. (Several other
356 input modes are available, see @ruser{Input modes}.)
358 So, adding a few notes and a bass clef for the left hand, we now
359 have a piece of real music:
361 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
362 melody = \relative c'' { r4 d8\noBeam g, c4 r }
363 text = \lyricmode { And God said, }
364 upper = \relative c'' { <g d g,>2~ <g d g,> }
365 lower = \relative c { b2 e2 }
369 \new Staff = "singer" <<
370 \new Voice = "vocal" { \melody }
373 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
374 \new Staff = "upper" { \upper }
375 \new Staff = "lower" {
385 When writing (or reading) a @code{\score} section, just take it
386 slowly and carefully. Start with the outer level, then work on
387 each smaller level. It also really helps to be strict with
388 indentation -- make sure that each item on the same level starts
389 on the same horizontal position in your text editor.
393 Notation Reference: @ruser{Structure of a score}.
396 @node Nesting music expressions
397 @subsection Nesting music expressions
399 @cindex staves, temporary
400 @cindex temporary staves
403 It is not essential to declare all staves at the beginning; they may
404 be introduced temporarily at any point. This is particularly useful
405 for creating ossia sections -- see @rglos{ossia}. Here is a simple
406 example showing how to introduce a new staff temporarily for the
407 duration of three notes:
409 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
426 Note that the size of the clef is the same as a clef printed
427 following a clef change -- slightly smaller than the clef
428 at the beginning of the line. This is usual for clefs printed
429 in the middle of a line.
431 @cindex staff, positioning
433 The ossia section may be placed above the staff
436 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
437 \new Staff = "main" {
444 alignAboveContext = #"main" }
452 This example uses @code{\with}, which will be explained more
453 fully later. It is a means of modifying the default behavior
454 of a single Staff. Here it says that the new staff should be
455 placed above the staff called @qq{main} instead of the default
456 position which is below.
460 Ossia are often written without clef and without
461 time signature and are usually in a smaller font.
462 These require further commands which
463 have not yet been introduced. See @ref{Size of objects},
464 and @ruser{Ossia staves}.
467 @node On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
468 @subsection On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
470 @cindex brackets, nesting
471 @cindex bracket types
472 @cindex brackets, enclosing vs. marking
474 You have already met a number of different types of bracket and
475 bracket-like constructs in writing the input file to LilyPond.
476 These obey different rules which can be confusing at first.
477 Let's first review the different types of brackets and bracket-like
480 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
482 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
483 @headitem Bracket Type
485 @item @code{@{ .. @}}
486 @tab Encloses a sequential segment of music
488 @tab Encloses the notes of a chord
489 @item @code{<< .. >>}
490 @tab Encloses simultaneous music expressions
492 @tab Marks the start and end of a slur
493 @item @code{\( .. \)}
494 @tab Marks the start and end of a phrasing slur
496 @tab Marks the start and end of a manual beam
499 To these we should add other constructs which generate lines
500 between or across notes: ties (marked by a tilde, @code{~}),
501 tuplets written as @code{\times x/y @{..@}}, and grace notes
502 written as @code{\grace@{..@}}.
504 Outside LilyPond, the conventional use of brackets requires the
505 different types to be properly nested, like this, @code{<< [ @{ ( .. )
506 @} ] >>}, with the closing brackets being encountered in exactly the
507 opposite order to the opening brackets. This @strong{is} a
508 requirement for the three types of bracket described by the word
509 @q{Encloses} in the table above -- they must nest properly. However,
510 the remaining bracket-like constructs, described with the word
511 @q{Marks} in the table above together with ties and tuplets, do
512 @strong{not} have to nest properly with any of the brackets or
513 bracket-like constructs. In fact, these are not brackets in
514 the sense that they enclose something -- they are simply markers to
515 indicate where something starts and ends.
517 So, for example, a phrasing slur can start before a manually
518 inserted beam and end before the end of the beam -- not very
519 musical, perhaps, but possible:
521 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2]
522 { g8\( a b[ c b\) a] }
525 In general, different kinds of brackets, bracket-like constructs,
526 and those implied by tuplets, ties and grace notes, may be mixed
527 freely. This example shows a beam extending into a tuplet (line 1),
528 a slur extending into a tuplet (line 2), a beam and a slur
529 extending into a tuplet, a tie crossing two tuplets, and a
530 phrasing slur extending out of a tuplet (lines 3 and 4).
532 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
534 r16[ g16 \times 2/3 {r16 e'8] }
535 g16( a \times 2/3 {b d) e' }
536 g8[( a \times 2/3 {b d') e'~]}
537 \times 4/5 {e'32\( a b d' e'} a'4.\)
542 @node Voices contain music
543 @section Voices contain music
545 Singers need voices to sing, and so does LilyPond.
546 The actual music for all instruments in a score
547 is contained in Voices -- the most fundamental
548 of all LilyPond's concepts.
551 * I'm hearing Voices::
552 * Explicitly instantiating voices::
553 * Voices and vocals::
556 @node I'm hearing Voices
557 @subsection I'm hearing Voices
561 @cindex multiple voices
562 @cindex voices, multiple
563 @cindex Voice context
564 @cindex context, Voice
565 @cindex simultaneous music
566 @cindex music, simultaneous
567 @cindex concurrent music
568 @cindex music, concurrent
569 @cindex voices vs. chords
570 @cindex chords vs. voices
572 The lowest, most fundamental or innermost layers in a LilyPond
573 score are called @q{Voice contexts} or just @q{Voices} for short.
574 Voices are sometimes called @q{layers} in other notation
577 In fact, a Voice layer or context is the only one which can contain
578 music. If a Voice context is not explicitly declared one is created
579 automatically, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter. Some
580 instruments such as an Oboe can play only one note at a time. Music
581 written for such instruments is monophonic and requires just a single
582 voice. Instruments which can play more than one note at a time like
583 the piano will often require multiple voices to encode the different
584 concurrent notes and rhythms they are capable of playing.
586 A single voice can contain many notes in a chord, of course,
587 so when exactly are multiple voices needed? Look first at
588 this example of four chords:
590 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=1]
592 <d g>4 <d fis> <d a'> <d g>
595 This can be expressed using just the single angle bracket chord
596 symbols, @code{< ... >}, and for this just a single voice is
597 needed. But suppose the F-sharp were actually an eighth-note
598 followed by an eighth-note G, a passing note on the way to the A?
599 Now we have two notes which start at the same time but have
600 different durations: the quarter-note D and the eighth-note
601 F-sharp. How are these to be coded? They cannot be written as
602 a chord because all the notes in a chord must have the same
603 duration. And they cannot be written as two sequential notes
604 as they need to start at the same time. This is when two
607 Let us see how this is done in LilyPond input syntax.
612 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a
613 staff is to enter each voice as a sequence (with @code{@{...@}}),
614 and combine them simultaneously with angle brackets, @code{<<...>>}.
615 The fragments must also be separated with double backward slashes,
616 @code{\\}, to place them in separate voices. Without these, the
617 notes would be entered into a single voice, which would usually
618 cause errors. This technique is particularly suited to pieces of
619 music which are largely monophonic with occasional short sections
622 Here's how we split the chords above into two voices and add both
623 the passing note and a slur:
625 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2]
627 % Voice "1" Voice "2"
628 << { g4 fis8( g) a4 g } \\ { d4 d d d } >> |
631 Notice how the stems of the second voice now point down.
633 Here's another simple example:
635 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2]
637 % Voice "1" Voice "2"
638 << { r4 g g4. a8 } \\ { d,2 d4 g } >> |
639 << { bes4 bes c bes } \\ { g4 g g8( a) g4 } >> |
640 << { a2. r4 } \\ { fis2. s4 } >> |
643 It is not necessary to use a separate @code{<< \\ >>} construct
644 for each bar. For music with few notes in each bar this layout
645 can help the legibility of the code, but if there are many
646 notes in each bar it may be better to split out each voice
647 separately, like this:
649 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2]
665 @cindex voices, naming
666 @cindex voices crossing brackets
667 @cindex slurs crossing brackets
668 @cindex ties crossing brackest
670 This example has just two voices, but the same construct may be
671 used to encode three or more voices by adding more back-slash
674 The Voice contexts bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
675 In each of these contexts, the vertical direction of slurs,
676 stems, ties, dynamics etc., is set appropriately.
678 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
679 \new Staff \relative c' {
682 % Voice "1" Voice "2" Voice "3"
683 << { g4 f e } \\ { r8 e4 d c8 ~ } >> |
684 << { d2 e2 } \\ { c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2 } \\ { s4 b4 c2 } >> |
688 These voices are all separate from the main voice that contains
689 the notes just outside the @code{<< .. >>} construct. Let's call
690 this the @emph{simultaneous construct}. Slurs and ties may only
691 connect notes within the same voice, so slurs and ties cannot go
692 into or out of a simultaneous construct. Conversely,
693 parallel voices from separate simultaneous constructs on the same
694 staff are the same voice. Other voice-related properties also
695 carry across simultaneous constructs. Here is the same example,
696 with different colors and note heads for each voice. Note that
697 changes in one voice do not affect other voices, but they do
698 persist in the same voice later. Note also that tied notes may be
699 split across the same voices in two constructs, shown here in the
702 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
703 \new Staff \relative c' {
722 { c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2 }
732 @funindex \voiceOneStyle
733 @funindex \voiceTwoStyle
734 @funindex \voiceThreeStyle
735 @funindex \voiceFourStyle
736 @funindex \voiceNeutralStyle
738 The commands @code{\voiceXXXStyle} are mainly intended for use in
739 educational documents such as this one. They modify the color
740 of the note head, the stem and the beams, and the style of the
741 note head, so that the voices may be easily distinguished.
742 Voice one is set to red diamonds, voice two to blue triangles,
743 voice three to green crossed circles, and voice four (not used
744 here) to magenta crosses; @code{\voiceNeutralStyle} (also not
745 used here) reverts the style back to the default.
746 We shall see later how commands like these may be created by the
748 See @ref{Visibility and color of objects} and
749 @ref{Using variables for tweaks}.
751 @cindex polyphony and relative note entry
752 @cindex relative note entry and polyphony
754 Polyphony does not change the relationship of notes within a
755 @code{\relative @{ @}} block. Each note is still calculated
756 relative to the note immediately preceding it, or to the first
757 note of the preceding chord. So in
760 \relative c' @{ noteA << < noteB noteC > \\ noteD >> noteE @}
764 @code{noteB} is relative to @code{noteA} @*
765 @code{noteC} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA}; @*
766 @code{noteD} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA} or
768 @code{noteE} is relative to @code{noteD}, not @code{noteA}.
770 An alternative way, which may be clearer if the notes in the
771 voices are widely separated, is to place a @code{\relative}
772 command at the start of each voice:
775 \relative c' @{ noteA ... @}
777 \relative c'' @{ < noteB noteC > ... @}
779 \relative g' @{ noteD ... @}
781 \relative c' @{ noteE ... @}
784 Let us finally analyze the voices in a more complex piece of music.
785 Here are the notes from the first two bars of the second of Chopin's
786 Deux Nocturnes, Op 32. This example will be used at later stages in
787 this and the next chapter to illustrate several techniques for
788 producing notation, so please ignore for now anything in the
789 underlying code which looks mysterious and concentrate just on the
790 music and the voices -- the complications will all be explained in
793 @c The following should appear as music without code
794 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
795 \new Staff \relative c'' {
804 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
805 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0
807 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0.5
815 The direction of the stems is often used to indicate the continuity of
816 two simultaneous melodic lines. Here the stems of the highest notes
817 are all pointing up and the stems of the lower notes are all pointing
818 down. This is the first indication that more than one voice is
821 But the real need for multiple voices arises when notes
822 which start at the same time have different durations.
823 Look at the notes which start at beat three in the first
824 bar. The A-flat is a dotted quarter note, the F is a
825 quarter note and the D-flat is a half note. These
826 cannot be written as a chord as all the notes in a chord
827 must have the same duration. Neither can they be written
828 as sequential notes, as they must start at the same time.
829 This section of the bar requires three voices, and the
830 normal practice would be to write the whole bar as three
831 voices, as shown below, where we have used different note heads
832 and colors for the three voices. Again, the code behind this
833 example will be explained later, so ignore anything you do
836 @c The following should appear as music without code
837 @c The three voice styles should be defined in -init
838 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
839 \new Staff \relative c'' {
850 \\ % No Voice three (we want stems down)
853 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
854 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0
856 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0.5
865 Let us try to encode this music from scratch. As we
866 shall see, this encounters some difficulties. We begin as
867 we have learnt, using the @code{<< \\ >>} construct to
868 enter the music of the first bar in three voices:
870 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
871 \new Staff \relative c'' {
874 { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\ { aes2 f4 fes } \\ { <ees c>2 des2 }
881 @cindex voices and stem directions
882 @cindex stem directions and voices
885 The stem directions are automatically assigned with the
886 odd-numbered voices taking upward stems and the even-numbered
887 voices downward ones. The stems for voices 1 and 2 are right,
888 but the stems in voice 3 should go down in this particular piece
889 of music. We can correct this by skipping voice three
890 and placing the music in voice four. This is done by simply
891 adding another pair of @code{\\}.
893 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
894 \new Staff \relative c'' {
900 \\ % Omit Voice three
909 We see that this fixes the stem direction, but exposes a problem
910 sometimes encountered with multiple voices -- the stems of the notes
911 in one voice can collide with the note heads in other voices. In
912 laying out the notes, LilyPond allows the notes or chords from two
913 voices to occupy the same vertical note column provided the stems are
914 in opposite directions, but the notes from the third and fourth voices
915 are displaced, if necessary, to avoid the note heads colliding. This
916 usually works well, but in this example the notes of the lowest voice
917 are clearly not well placed by default. LilyPond provides several ways
918 to adjust the horizontal placing of notes. We are not quite ready yet
919 to see how to correct this, so we shall leave this problem until a
920 later section --- see the @code{force-hshift} property in @ref{Fixing
921 overlapping notation}.
925 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
928 @node Explicitly instantiating voices
929 @subsection Explicitly instantiating voices
935 @funindex \voiceThree
942 @cindex voice contexts, creating
944 Voice contexts can also be created manually
945 inside a @code{<< >>} block to create polyphonic music, using
946 @code{\voiceOne} ... @code{\voiceFour} to indicate the required
947 directions of stems, slurs, etc. In longer scores this method
948 is clearer, as it permits the voices to be separated and to be
949 given more descriptive names.
951 Specifically, the construct @code{<< \\ >>} which we used in
952 the previous section:
957 << @{ e4 f g a @} \\ @{ c,4 d e f @} >>
967 \new Voice = "1" @{ \voiceOne \relative c' @{ e4 f g a @} @}
968 \new Voice = "2" @{ \voiceTwo \relative c' @{ c4 d e f @} @}
972 Both of the above would produce
974 @c The following example should not display the code
975 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
977 \new Voice = "1" { \voiceOne \relative c' { e4 f g a } }
978 \new Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo \relative c' { c4 d e f } }
982 @cindex voices, reverting to single
983 @cindex reverting to a single voice
985 The @code{\voiceXXX} commands set the direction of stems, slurs,
986 ties, articulations, text annotations, augmentation dots of dotted
987 notes, and fingerings. @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceThree}
988 make these objects point upwards, while @code{\voiceTwo} and
989 @code{\voiceFour} make them point downwards. These commands also
990 generate a horizontal shift for each voice when this is required
991 to avoid clashes of note heads. The command @code{\oneVoice}
992 reverts the settings back to the normal values for a single voice.
994 Let us see in some simple examples exactly what effect
995 @code{\oneVoice}, @code{\voiceOne} and @code{voiceTwo} have on
996 markup, ties, slurs, and dynamics:
998 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1000 % Default behavior or behavior after \oneVoice
1001 c d8 ~ d e4 ( f g a ) b-> c
1005 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1008 c d8 ~ d e4 ( f g a ) b-> c
1010 c, d8 ~ d e4 ( f g a ) b-> c
1014 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1017 c d8 ~ d e4 ( f g a ) b-> c
1019 c, d8 ~ d e4 ( f g a ) b-> c
1023 Now let's look at three different ways to notate the same passage
1024 of polyphonic music, each of which is advantageous in different
1025 circumstances, using the example from the previous section.
1027 An expression that appears directly inside a @code{<< >>} belongs
1028 to the main voice (but, note, @strong{not} in a @code{<< \\ >>}
1029 construct). This is useful when extra voices appear while the
1030 main voice is playing. Here is a more correct rendition of our
1031 example. The red diamond-shaped notes
1032 demonstrate that the main melody is now in a single voice context,
1033 permitting a phrasing slur to be drawn over them.
1035 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1036 \new Staff \relative c' {
1038 % The following notes are monophonic
1040 % Start simultaneous section of three voices
1042 % Continue the main voice in parallel
1044 % Initiate second voice
1046 % Set stems, etc, down
1048 r8 e4 d c8 ~ | c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2
1050 % Initiate third voice
1052 % Set stems, etc, up
1060 @cindex nesting music expressions
1061 @cindex nesting simultaneous constructs
1062 @cindex nesting voices
1063 @cindex voices, temporary
1064 @cindex voices, nesting
1066 More deeply nested polyphony constructs are possible, and if a
1067 voice appears only briefly this might be a more natural way to
1070 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1071 \new Staff \relative c' {
1079 {c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2}
1090 @cindex spacing notes
1092 This method of nesting new voices briefly is useful
1093 when only small sections of the music
1094 are polyphonic, but when the whole staff is largely polyphonic
1095 it can be clearer to use multiple voices throughout, using
1096 spacing notes to step over sections where the voice is silent,
1099 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1100 \new Staff \relative c' <<
1101 % Initiate first voice
1104 c16^( d e f g4 f e | d2 e2) |
1106 % Initiate second voice
1108 % Set stems, etc, down
1110 s4 r8 e4 d c8 ~ | c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2 |
1112 % Initiate third voice
1114 % Set stems, etc, up
1121 @subsubheading Note columns
1124 @cindex note collisions
1125 @cindex collisions, notes
1126 @cindex shift commands
1133 @funindex \shiftOnnn
1136 Closely spaced notes in a chord, or notes occurring at the same
1137 time in different voices, are arranged in two, occasionally more,
1138 columns to prevent the note heads overlapping. These are called
1139 note columns. There are separate columns for each voice, and
1140 the currently specified voice-dependent shift is applied to the
1141 note column if there would otherwise be a collision. This can
1142 be seen in the example above. In bar 2 the C in voice two is
1143 shifted to the right relative to the D in voice one, and in the
1144 final chord the C in voice three is also shifted to the right
1145 relative to the other notes.
1147 The @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, @code{\shiftOnnn}, and
1148 @code{\shiftOff} commands specify the degree to which notes and
1149 chords of the voice should be shifted if a collision
1150 would otherwise occur. By default, the outer voices (normally
1151 voices one and two) have @code{\shiftOff} specified, while the
1152 inner voices (three and four) have @code{\shiftOn} specified.
1153 When a shift is applied, voices one and three are shifted to
1154 the right and voices two and four to the left.
1156 @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn} define further shift
1157 levels which may be specified temporarily to resolve collisions
1158 in complex situations -- see @ref{Real music example}.
1160 A note column can contain just one note (or chord) from a voice
1161 with stems up and one note (or chord) from a voice with stems
1162 down. If notes from two voices which have their stems in the
1163 same direction are placed at the same position and both voices
1164 have no shift or the same shift specified, the error message
1165 @qq{Too many clashing note columns} will be produced.
1169 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
1172 @node Voices and vocals
1173 @subsection Voices and vocals
1175 Vocal music presents a special difficulty: we need to combine two
1176 expressions -- notes and lyrics.
1178 @funindex \new Lyrics
1182 @cindex Lyrics context, creating
1183 @cindex lyrics, linking to voice
1185 You have already seen the @code{\addlyrics@{@}} command, which
1186 handles simple scores well. However, this technique is
1187 quite limited. For more complex music, you must introduce the
1188 lyrics in a @code{Lyrics} context using @code{\new Lyrics} and
1190 the lyrics to the notes with @code{\lyricsto@{@}}, using the
1191 name assigned to the Voice.
1193 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
1195 \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' {
1198 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
1200 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
1201 No more let sins and sor -- rows grow.
1206 Note that the lyrics must be linked to a @code{Voice} context,
1207 @emph{not} a @code{Staff} context. This is a case where it is
1208 necessary to create @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts
1211 @cindex lyrics and beaming
1212 @cindex beaming and lyrics
1213 @funindex \autoBeamOff
1214 @funindex autoBeamOff
1216 The automatic beaming which LilyPond uses by default works well
1217 for instrumental music, but not so well for music with lyrics,
1218 where beaming is either not required at all or is used to indicate
1219 melismata in the lyrics. In the example above we use the command
1220 @code{\autoBeamOff} to turn off the automatic beaming.
1222 @funindex \new ChoirStaff
1223 @funindex ChoirStaff
1224 @funindex \lyricmode
1226 @cindex vocal score structure
1229 Let us reuse the earlier example from Judas Maccabæus to
1230 illustrate this more flexible technique. We first recast
1231 it to use variables so the music and lyrics can be separated
1232 from the staff structure. We also introduce a ChoirStaff
1233 bracket. The lyrics themselves must be introduced with
1234 @code{\lyricmode} to ensure they are interpreted as lyrics
1237 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1238 global = { \time 6/8 \partial 8 \key f \major}
1239 SopOneMusic = \relative c'' {
1240 c8 | c([ bes)] a a([ g)] f | f'4. b, | c4.~ c4 }
1241 SopTwoMusic = \relative c' {
1242 r8 | r4. r4 c8 | a'([ g)] f f([ e)] d | e([ d)] c bes' }
1243 SopOneLyrics = \lyricmode {
1244 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, __ }
1245 SopTwoLyrics = \lyricmode {
1246 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, }
1251 \new Voice = "SopOne" {
1255 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopOne" {
1260 \new Voice = "SopTwo" {
1264 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopTwo" {
1272 This is the basic structure of all vocal scores. More staves may be
1273 added as required, more voices may be added to the staves, more verses
1274 may be added to the lyrics, and the variables containing the music can
1275 easily be placed in separate files should they become too long.
1277 @cindex hymn structure
1278 @cindex SATB structure
1279 @cindex vocal scores with multiple verses
1280 @cindex multiple vocal verses
1281 @cindex verses, multiple vocal
1283 Here is an example of the first line of a hymn with four
1284 verses, set for SATB. In this case the words for all four
1285 parts are the same. Note how we use variables to separate the
1286 music notation and words from the staff structure. See too
1287 how a variable, which we have chosen to call @q{TimeKey}, is used
1288 to hold several commands for use within the two staves. In other
1289 examples this is often called @q{global}.
1291 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1292 TimeKey = { \time 4/4 \partial 4 \key c \major}
1293 SopMusic = \relative c' { c4 | e4. e8 g4 g | a a g }
1294 AltoMusic = \relative c' { c4 | c4. c8 e4 e | f f e }
1295 TenorMusic = \relative c { e4 | g4. g8 c4. b8 | a8 b c d e4 }
1296 BassMusic = \relative c { c4 | c4. c8 c4 c | f8 g a b c4 }
1297 VerseOne = \lyricmode {
1298 E -- | ter -- nal fa -- ther, | strong to save, }
1299 VerseTwo = \lyricmode {
1300 O | Christ, whose voice the | wa -- ters heard, }
1301 VerseThree = \lyricmode {
1302 O | Ho -- ly Spi -- rit, | who didst brood }
1303 VerseFour = \lyricmode {
1304 O | Tri -- ni -- ty of | love and pow'r }
1310 \new Voice = "Sop" { \voiceOne \TimeKey \SopMusic }
1311 \new Voice = "Alto" { \voiceTwo \AltoMusic }
1312 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseOne }
1313 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseTwo }
1314 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseThree }
1315 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseFour }
1319 \new Voice = "Tenor" { \voiceOne \TimeKey \TenorMusic }
1320 \new Voice = "Bass" { \voiceTwo \BassMusic }
1326 @cindex verse and refrain
1328 We end with an example to show how we might code a solo verse which
1329 continues into a two-part refrain in two staves. The
1330 positioning of the sequential and simultaneous sections to achieve
1331 this within a single score is quite tricky, so follow the
1332 explanation carefully!
1334 Let's start with a score block containing a @code{ChoirStaff}, as
1335 we would like the brace to appear at the start of the chorus.
1336 Normally you would need angle brackets after @code{\new ChoirStaff}
1337 to bring in all the staves in parallel, but here we want to
1338 defer the parallelism during the solo so we use braces, although
1339 angle brackets here wouldn't hurt. Inside the @code{ChoirStaff} we
1340 want first the staff which will contain the verse. This must
1341 contain notes and lyrics in parallel, so here we need angle
1342 brackets around the @code{\new Voice} and @code{\new Lyrics} to
1343 start them at the same time:
1345 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1346 versenotes = \relative c'' {
1349 \time 3/4 g g g b b b
1351 versewords = \lyricmode {
1352 One two three four five six
1357 \new Voice = "verse" {
1360 \new Lyrics \lyricsto verse {
1368 That gives the verse line.
1370 Now we want to continue with refrainA on the same staff while a
1371 second staff is introduced in parallel with it for refrainB, so
1372 this is a parallel section which must be positioned immediately
1373 following the @code{\break} in the verse Voice. Yes, @emph{within}
1374 the verse Voice! Here's that parallel section. More staves
1375 could be introduced here in the same way.
1380 \new Lyrics \lyricsto verse @{
1384 \new Voice = "refrainB" @{
1387 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" @{
1394 Here's the final result with two staves in the chorus showing
1395 how the parallel section is positioned within the verse Voice:
1397 @lilypond[quote,verbatim, ragged-right]
1398 versenotes = \relative c'' {
1401 \time 3/4 g g g b b b
1403 refrainnotesA = \relative c'' {
1407 refrainnotesB = \relative c {
1412 versewords = \lyricmode {
1413 One two three four five six
1415 refrainwordsA = \lyricmode {
1418 refrainwordsB = \lyricmode {
1424 \new Voice = "verse" {
1428 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" {
1432 \new Voice = "refrainB" {
1435 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" {
1441 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" {
1449 @cindex book, example of using
1453 However, although this is an interesting and useful exercise to
1454 help you to understand how sequential and simultaneous blocks work,
1455 in practice one would perhaps choose to code this as two
1456 @code{\score} blocks within an implicit @code{\book} block, as
1459 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1460 versenotes = \relative c'' {
1463 \time 3/4 g g g b b b
1465 refrainnotesA = \relative c'' {
1469 refrainnotesB = \relative c {
1474 versewords = \lyricmode {
1475 One two three four five six
1477 refrainwordsA = \lyricmode {
1480 refrainwordsB = \lyricmode {
1485 \new Voice = "verse" {
1488 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" {
1497 \new Voice = "refrainA" {
1500 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainA" {
1505 \new Voice = "refrainB" {
1508 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" {
1518 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1521 @node Contexts and engravers
1522 @section Contexts and engravers
1524 Contexts and engravers have been mentioned informally
1525 in earlier sections; we now must look at
1526 these concepts in more detail, as they are important
1527 in the fine-tuning of LilyPond output.
1531 * Contexts explained::
1532 * Creating contexts::
1533 * Engravers explained::
1534 * Modifying context properties::
1535 * Adding and removing engravers::
1538 @node Contexts explained
1539 @subsection Contexts explained
1541 @cindex contexts explained
1543 When music is printed, many notational elements which do not
1544 appear explicitly in the input file must be added to the
1545 output. For example, compare the input and output of the
1548 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1552 The input is rather sparse, but in the output, bar lines,
1553 accidentals, clef, and time signature have been added. When
1554 LilyPond @emph{interprets} the input the musical information
1555 is parsed from left to right, similar to the way a performer
1556 reads the score. While reading the input, the program remembers
1557 where measure boundaries are, and which pitches require explicit
1558 accidentals. This information must be held on several levels.
1559 For example, an accidental affects only a single staff, while
1560 a bar line must be synchronized across the entire score.
1562 Within LilyPond, these rules and bits of information are grouped in
1563 @emph{Contexts}. We have already introduced the @code{Voice} context.
1564 Others are the @code{Staff} and @code{Score} contexts. Contexts are
1565 hierarchical to reflect the hierarchical nature of a musical score.
1566 For example: a @code{Staff} context can contain many @code{Voice}
1567 contexts, and a @code{Score} context can contain many @code{Staff}
1571 @sourceimage{context-example,5cm,,}
1574 Each context has the responsibility for enforcing some notation rules,
1575 creating some notation objects and maintaining the associated
1576 properties. For example, the @code{Voice} context may introduce an
1577 accidental and then the @code{Staff} context maintains the rule to
1578 show or suppress the accidental for the remainder of the measure.
1580 As another example, the synchronization of bar lines is, by default,
1581 handled in the @code{Score} context.
1582 However, in some music we may not want the bar lines to be
1583 synchronized -- consider a polymetric score in 4/4 and 3/4 time.
1584 In such cases, we must modify the default settings of the
1585 @code{Score} and @code{Staff} contexts.
1587 For very simple scores, contexts are created implicitly, and you need
1588 not be aware of them. For larger pieces, such as anything with more
1589 than one staff, they must be
1590 created explicitly to make sure that you get as many staves as you
1591 need, and that they are in the correct order. For typesetting pieces
1592 with specialized notation, it is usual to modify existing, or
1593 even to define totally new, contexts.
1595 In addition to the @code{Score,} @code{Staff} and
1596 @code{Voice} contexts there are contexts which fit between
1597 the score and staff levels to control staff groups, such as the
1598 @code{PianoStaff} and @code{ChoirStaff} contexts. There
1599 are also alternative staff and voice contexts, and contexts for
1600 lyrics, percussion, fret boards, figured bass, etc.
1602 The names of all context types are formed from one or more
1603 words, each word being capitalized and joined immediately to the
1604 preceding word with no hyphen or underscore, e.g.,
1605 @code{GregorianTranscriptionStaff}.
1609 Notation Reference: @ruser{Contexts explained}.
1612 @node Creating contexts
1613 @subsection Creating contexts
1617 @cindex new contexts
1618 @cindex creating contexts
1619 @cindex contexts, creating
1621 There can be only one top level context: the @code{Score} context.
1622 This is created with the @code{\score} command, or, in simple scores,
1623 it is created automatically.
1625 For scores with only one voice and one staff, the @code{Voice} and
1626 @code{Staff} contexts may be left to be created automatically, but for
1627 more complex scores it is necessary to create them by hand. The
1628 simplest command that does this is @code{\new}. It is prepended to a
1629 music expression, for example
1632 \new @var{type} @var{music-expression}
1636 where @var{type} is a context name (like @code{Staff} or
1637 @code{Voice}). This command creates a new context, and starts
1638 interpreting the @var{music-expression} within that context.
1640 Note that there is no @code{\new Score} command;
1641 the single top-level @code{Score} context is introduced
1644 You have seen many practical examples which created new
1645 @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts in earlier sections, but
1646 to remind you how these commands are used in practice, here's an
1647 annotated real-music example:
1649 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1650 \score { % start of single compound music expression
1651 << % start of simultaneous staves section
1653 \new Staff { % create RH staff
1656 \new Voice { % create voice for RH notes
1657 \relative c'' { % start of RH notes
1663 \new Staff << % create LH staff; needs two simultaneous voices
1666 \new Voice { % create LH voice one
1668 \relative g { % start of LH voice one notes
1669 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1670 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1671 } % end of LH voice one notes
1672 } % end of LH voice one
1673 \new Voice { % create LH voice two
1675 \relative g { % start of LH voice two notes
1678 } % end of LH voice two notes
1679 } % end of LH voice two
1680 >> % end of LH staff
1681 >> % end of simultaneous staves section
1682 } % end of single compound music expression
1685 (Note how all the statements which open a block with either a
1686 curly bracket, @code{@{}, or double angle brackets, @code{<<},
1687 are indented by two further spaces, and the corresponding
1688 closing bracket is indented by exactly the same amount. While
1689 this is not required, following this practice will greatly
1690 reduce the number of @q{unmatched bracket} errors, and is
1691 strongly recommended. It enables the structure of the music to
1692 be seen at a glance, and any unmatched brackets will be obvious.
1693 Note too how the LH staff is created using double angle brackets
1694 because it requires two voices for its music, whereas the RH staff
1695 is created with a single music expression surrounded by curly
1696 brackets because it requires only one voice.)
1698 @cindex contexts, naming
1699 @cindex naming contexts
1701 The @code{\new} command may also give an identifying name to the
1702 context to distinguish it from other contexts of the same type,
1705 \new @var{type} = @var{id} @var{music-expression}
1708 Note the distinction between the name of the context type,
1709 @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}, etc, and the identifying name of a
1710 particular instance of that type, which can be any sequence of letters
1711 invented by the user. Digits and spaces can also be used in the
1712 identifying name, but then it has to be placed in quotes,
1713 i.e. @code{\new Staff = "MyStaff 1" @var{music-expression}}.
1714 The identifying name is used to
1715 refer back to that particular instance of a context. We saw this in
1716 use in the section on lyrics, see @ref{Voices and vocals}.
1720 Notation Reference: @ruser{Creating contexts}.
1723 @node Engravers explained
1724 @subsection Engravers explained
1728 Every mark on the printed output of a score produced by LilyPond
1729 is produced by an @code{Engraver}. Thus there is an engraver
1730 to print staves, one to print note heads, one for stems, one for
1731 beams, etc, etc. In total there are over 120 such engravers!
1732 Fortunately, for most scores it is not necessary to know about
1733 more than a few, and for simple scores you do not need to know
1736 Engravers live and operate in Contexts. Engravers such as the
1737 @code{Metronome_mark_engraver}, whose action and output apply to the
1738 score as a whole, operate in the highest level context -- the
1739 @code{Score} context.
1741 The @code{Clef_engraver} and @code{Key_engraver} are to be
1742 found in every @code{Staff} Context, as different staves may require
1743 different clefs and keys.
1745 The @code{Note_heads_engraver} and @code{Stem_engraver} live
1746 in every @code{Voice} context, the lowest level context of all.
1748 Each engraver processes the particular objects associated
1749 with its function, and maintains the properties that relate
1750 to that function. These properties, like the properties
1751 associated with contexts, may be modified to change the
1752 operation of the engraver or the appearance of those elements
1753 in the printed score.
1755 Engravers all have compound names formed from words which
1756 describe their function. Just the first word is capitalized,
1757 and the remainder are joined to it with underscores. Thus
1758 the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver} is responsible for creating the
1759 lines of the staff, the @code{Clef_engraver} determines and sets
1760 the pitch reference point on the staff by drawing a clef symbol.
1762 Here are some of the most common engravers together with their
1763 function. You will see it is usually easy to guess the function
1764 from the name, or vice versa.
1766 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
1769 @item Accidental_engraver
1770 @tab Makes accidentals, cautionary and suggested accidentals
1775 @item Completion_heads_engraver
1776 @tab Splits notes which cross bar lines
1777 @c The old Dynamic_engraver is deprecated. -jm
1778 @item New_dynamic_engraver
1779 @tab Creates hairpins and dynamic texts
1780 @item Forbid_line_break_engraver
1781 @tab Prevents line breaks if a musical element is still active
1783 @tab Creates the key signature
1784 @item Metronome_mark_engraver
1785 @tab Engraves metronome marking
1786 @item Note_heads_engraver
1787 @tab Engraves note heads
1790 @item Staff_symbol_engraver
1791 @tab Engraves the five (by default) lines of the staff
1793 @tab Creates stems and single-stem tremolos
1794 @item Time_signature_engraver
1795 @tab Creates time signatures
1800 We shall see later how the output of LilyPond can be changed
1801 by modifying the action of Engravers.
1805 Internals reference: @rinternals{Engravers and Performers}.
1808 @node Modifying context properties
1809 @subsection Modifying context properties
1811 @cindex context properties
1812 @cindex context properties, modifying
1813 @cindex modifying context properties
1819 Contexts are responsible for holding the values of a number of
1820 context @emph{properties}. Many of them can be changed to
1821 influence the interpretation of the input and so change the
1822 appearance of the output. They are changed by the
1823 @code{\set} command. This takes the form
1826 \set @emph{ContextName}.@emph{propertyName} = #@emph{value}
1829 Where the @emph{ContextName} is usually @code{Score},
1830 @code{Staff} or @code{Voice}. It may be omitted,
1831 in which case @code{Voice} is assumed.
1833 The names of context properties consist of words joined
1834 together with no hyphens or underscores, all except the
1835 first having a capital letter. Here are a few examples
1836 of some commonly used ones. There are many more.
1838 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
1840 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .15 .45 .15
1841 @headitem propertyName
1847 @tab If true, set extra natural signs before accidentals
1848 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1849 @item currentBarNumber
1851 @tab Set the current bar number
1855 @tab If true, print slurs both above and below notes
1856 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1857 @item instrumentName
1859 @tab Set the name to be placed at the start of the staff
1860 @tab @code{"Cello I"}
1863 @tab Increase or decrease the font size
1867 @tab Set the text to print before the start of a verse
1872 where a Boolean is either True (@code{#t}) or False (@code{#f}),
1873 an Integer is a positive whole number, a Real is a positive
1874 or negative decimal number, and text is enclosed in double
1875 apostrophes. Note the occurrence of hash signs,
1876 (@code{#}), in two different places -- as part of the Boolean
1877 value before the @code{t} or @code{f}, and before @emph{value}
1878 in the @code{\set} statement. So when a Boolean is being
1879 entered you need to code two hash signs, e.g., @code{##t}.
1881 @cindex properties operating in contexts
1882 @cindex setting properties within contexts
1884 Before we can set any of these properties we need to know
1885 in which context they operate. Sometimes this is obvious,
1886 but occasionally it can be tricky. If the wrong context
1887 is specified, no error message is produced, but the expected
1888 action will not take place. For example, the
1889 @code{instrumentName} clearly lives in the @code{Staff} context, since
1890 it is the staff that is to be named.
1891 In this example the first staff is labelled, but not the second,
1892 because we omitted the context name.
1894 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1896 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1897 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
1900 \new Staff \relative c' {
1901 \set instrumentName = #"Alto" % Wrong!
1907 Remember the default context name is @code{Voice}, so the second
1908 @code{\set} command set the property @code{instrumentName} in the
1909 @code{Voice} context to @qq{Alto}, but as LilyPond does not look
1910 for any such property in the @code{Voice} context, no
1911 further action took place. This is not an error, and no error
1912 message is logged in the log file.
1914 Similarly, if the property name is mis-spelt no error message is
1915 produced, and clearly the expected action cannot be performed. In
1916 fact, you can set any (fictitious) @q{property} using any name you
1917 like in any context that exists by using the @code{\set} command. But
1918 if the name is not known to LilyPond it will not cause any action to
1919 be taken. Some text editors with special support for LilyPond input
1920 files document property names with bullets when you hover them with
1921 the mouse, like JEdit with LilyPondTool, or highlight unknown property
1922 names differently, like ConTEXT. If you do not use an editor with
1923 such features, it is recommended to check the property name in the
1924 Internals Reference: see @rinternals{Tunable context properties}, or
1925 @rinternals{Contexts}.
1927 The @code{instrumentName} property will take effect only
1928 if it is set in the @code{Staff} context, but
1929 some properties can be set in more than one context.
1930 For example, the property @code{extraNatural} is by
1931 default set to ##t (true) for all staves.
1932 If it is set to ##f (false) in one particular @code{Staff}
1933 context it applies just to the accidentals on that staff.
1934 If it is set to false in the @code{Score} context
1935 it applies to all staves.
1937 So this turns off extra naturals in one staff:
1939 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1941 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1944 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1945 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1952 and this turns them off in all staves:
1954 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1956 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1959 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1960 \set Score.extraNatural = ##f
1966 As another example, if @code{clefOctavation} is set in
1967 the @code{Score} context this immediately changes the value
1968 of the octavation in all current staves and sets a new default
1969 value which will be applied to all staves.
1971 The opposite command, @code{\unset}, effectively removes the
1972 property from the context, which causes most properties to
1973 revert to their default value. Usually @code{\unset} is not
1974 required as a new @code{\set} command will achieve what is
1977 The @code{\set} and @code{\unset} commands can appear anywhere
1978 in the input file and will take effect from the time they are
1979 encountered until the end of the score or until the property is
1980 @code{\set} or @code{\unset} again. Let's try changing the
1981 font size, which affects the size of the note heads (among
1982 other things) several times. The change is from the default
1983 value, not the most recently set value.
1985 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1,fragment]
1987 % make note heads smaller
1990 % make note heads larger
1991 \set fontSize = #2.5
1993 % return to default size
1998 We have now seen how to set the values of several different types of
1999 property. Note that integers and numbers are always preceded by a
2000 hash sign, @code{#}, while a true or false value is specified by
2001 @code{##t} and @code{##f}, with two hash signs. A text property
2002 should be enclosed in double quotation signs, as above, although we
2003 shall see later that text can actually be specified in a much more
2004 general way by using the very powerful @code{\markup} command.
2006 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\with}
2010 @cindex context properties, setting with \with
2012 Context properties may also be set at the time the context is
2013 created. Sometimes this is a clearer way of specifying a
2014 property value if it is to remain fixed for the duration of
2015 the context. When a context is created with a @code{\new}
2016 command it may be followed immediately by a
2017 @code{\with @{ .. @}} block in which the property values are
2018 set. For example, if we wish to suppress the printing of
2019 extra naturals for the duration of a staff we would write:
2022 \new Staff \with @{ extraNatural = ##f @}
2028 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2034 \new Staff \with { extraNatural = ##f }
2041 Properties set in this way may still be changed dynamically using
2042 @code{\set} and returned to their default value with @code{\unset}.
2044 @cindex fontSize, default and setting
2046 The @code{fontSize} property is treated differently. If this is
2047 set in a @code{\with} clause it effectively resets the default
2048 value of the font size. If it is later changed with @code{\set},
2049 this new default value may be restored with the
2050 @code{\unset fontSize} command.
2052 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\context}
2054 @cindex context properties, setting with \context
2058 The values of context properties may be set in @emph{all} contexts
2059 of a particular type, such as all @code{Staff} contexts, with a single
2060 command. The context type is identified by using its
2061 type name, like @code{Staff}, prefixed by a back-slash: @code{\Staff}.
2062 The statement which sets the property value is the same as that in a
2063 @code{\with} block, introduced above. It is placed in a
2064 @code{\context} block within a @code{\layout} block. Each
2065 @code{\context} block will affect all contexts of the type specified
2066 throughout the @code{\score} or @code{\book} block in which the
2067 @code{\layout} block appears. Here is a example to show the format:
2069 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
2086 Context properties set in this way may be overridden for particular
2087 instances of contexts by statements in a @code{\with} block, and by
2088 @code{\set} commands embedded in music statements.
2093 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
2095 @c uncomment when backslash-node-name issue is resolved -pm
2096 @c @ruser{The set command}.
2098 Internals Reference:
2099 @rinternals{Contexts},
2100 @rinternals{Tunable context properties}.
2103 @node Adding and removing engravers
2104 @subsection Adding and removing engravers
2106 @cindex engravers, adding
2107 @cindex adding engravers
2108 @cindex engravers, removing
2109 @cindex removing engravers
2116 We have seen that contexts each contain several engravers, each
2117 of which is responsible for producing a particular part of the
2118 output, like bar lines, staves, note heads, stems, etc. If an
2119 engraver is removed from a context, it can no longer produce its
2120 output. This is a crude way of modifying the output, but it
2121 can sometimes be useful.
2123 @subsubheading Changing a single context
2125 To remove an engraver from a single context we use the
2126 @code{\with} command placed immediately after the context creation
2127 command, as in the previous section.
2129 As an illustration, let's repeat an example from the previous section
2130 with the staff lines removed. Remember that the staff lines are
2131 produced by the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}.
2133 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2135 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
2139 \set fontSize = #-4 % make note heads smaller
2141 \set fontSize = #2.5 % make note heads larger
2143 \unset fontSize % return to default size
2148 @cindex ambitus engraver
2150 Engravers can also be added to individual contexts.
2151 The command to do this is
2153 @code{\consists @var{Engraver_name}},
2156 placed inside a @code{\with} block. Some vocal scores have an ambitus
2157 placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the range of notes in
2158 that staff -- see @rglos{ambitus}. The ambitus is produced by the
2159 @code{Ambitus_engraver}, which is not normally included in any
2160 context. If we add it to the @code{Voice} context, it calculates the
2161 range from that voice only:
2163 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2166 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2181 but if we add the ambitus engraver to the
2182 @code{Staff} context, it calculates the range from all
2183 the notes in all the voices on that staff:
2185 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2187 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2203 @subsubheading Changing all contexts of the same type
2208 The examples above show how to remove or add engravers to
2209 individual contexts. It is also possible to remove or add
2210 engravers to every context of a specific type by placing the
2211 commands in the appropriate context in a @code{\layout}
2212 block. For example, if we wanted to show an ambitus for every
2213 staff in a four-staff score, we could write
2215 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2219 \relative c'' { c a b g }
2222 \relative c' { c a b g }
2226 \relative c' { c a b g }
2230 \relative c { c a b g }
2236 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2243 The values of context properties may also be set
2244 for all contexts of a particular type by including the
2245 @code{\set} command in a @code{\context} block in the
2250 Notation Reference: @ruser{Modifying context plug-ins},
2251 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
2254 @node Extending the templates
2255 @section Extending the templates
2257 You've read the tutorial, you know how to write music, you
2258 understand the fundamental concepts. But how can you
2259 get the staves that you want? Well, you can find lots of
2260 templates (see @ref{Templates}) which may give you a start.
2261 But what if you want something that isn't covered there? Read on.
2264 * Soprano and cello::
2265 * Four-part SATB vocal score::
2266 * Building a score from scratch::
2267 * Saving typing with variables and functions::
2268 * Scores and parts::
2271 @node Soprano and cello
2272 @subsection Soprano and cello
2274 @cindex template, modifying
2275 @cindex modifying templates
2277 Start off with the template that seems closest to what you want to end
2278 up with. Let's say that you want to write something for soprano and
2279 cello. In this case, we would start with the @q{Notes and lyrics} template (for the
2283 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2284 melody = \relative c' @{
2291 text = \lyricmode @{
2297 \new Voice = "one" @{
2301 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
2308 Now we want to add a cello part. Let's look at the @q{Notes only} example:
2311 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2312 melody = \relative c' @{
2326 We don't need two @code{\version} commands. We'll need the
2327 @code{melody} section. We don't want two @code{\score} sections
2328 -- if we had two @code{\score}s, we'd get the two parts separately.
2329 We want them together, as a duet. Within the @code{\score}
2330 section, we don't need two @code{\layout} or @code{\midi}.
2332 If we simply cut and paste the @code{melody} section, we would
2333 end up with two @code{melody} definitions. This would not generate
2334 an error, but the second one would be used for both melodies.
2335 So let's rename them to make them distinct. We'll call the
2336 section for the soprano @code{sopranoMusic} and the section for
2337 the cello @code{celloMusic}. While we're doing this, let's rename
2338 @code{text} to be @code{sopranoLyrics}. Remember to rename both
2339 instances of all these names -- both the initial definition (the
2340 @code{melody = \relative c' @{ } part) and the name's use (in the
2341 @code{\score} section).
2343 While we're doing this, let's change the cello part's staff --
2344 celli normally use bass clef. We'll also give the cello some
2348 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2349 sopranoMusic = \relative c' @{
2356 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode @{
2360 celloMusic = \relative c @{
2369 \new Voice = "one" @{
2373 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2380 This is looking promising, but the cello part won't appear in the
2381 score -- we haven't used it in the @code{\score} section. If we
2382 want the cello part to appear under the soprano part, we need to add
2385 \new Staff \celloMusic
2389 underneath the soprano stuff. We also need to add @code{<<} and
2390 @code{>>} around the music -- that tells LilyPond that there's
2391 more than one thing (in this case, two @code{Staves}) happening
2392 at once. The @code{\score} looks like this now:
2394 @c Indentation in this example is deliberately poor
2399 \new Voice = "one" @{
2403 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2405 \new Staff \celloMusic
2413 This looks a bit messy; the indentation is messed up now. That is
2414 easily fixed. Here's the complete soprano and cello template.
2416 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2417 sopranoMusic = \relative c' {
2424 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode {
2428 celloMusic = \relative c {
2438 \new Voice = "one" {
2442 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2444 \new Staff \celloMusic
2453 The starting templates can be found in the @q{Templates} appendix,
2454 see @ref{Single staff}.
2457 @node Four-part SATB vocal score
2458 @subsection Four-part SATB vocal score
2460 @cindex template, SATB
2461 @cindex SATB template
2463 Most vocal scores of music written for four-part mixed choir
2464 with orchestral accompaniment such as Mendelssohn's Elijah or
2465 Handel's Messiah have the choral music and words on four
2466 staves, one for each of SATB, with a piano reduction of the
2467 orchestral accompaniment underneath. Here's an example
2468 from Handel's Messiah:
2470 @c The following should appear as music without code
2471 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2472 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2473 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' {
2475 r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2477 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2478 Wor -- thy is the lamb that was slain
2480 altoMusic = \relative a' {
2482 r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis e2 |
2484 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2485 tenorMusic = \relative c' {
2487 r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2489 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2490 bassMusic = \relative c' {
2492 r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2494 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2495 upper = \relative a' {
2498 r4 <a d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2499 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2500 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2502 lower = \relative c, {
2505 <d d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2506 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2507 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2511 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2513 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2514 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2515 \new Voice = "sopranos" { \global \sopranoMusic }
2517 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" { \sopranoWords }
2518 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2519 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2520 \new Voice = "altos" { \global \altoMusic }
2522 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords }
2523 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2524 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2525 \new Voice = "tenors" { \global \tenorMusic }
2527 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords }
2528 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2529 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2530 \new Voice = "basses" { \global \bassMusic }
2532 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" { \bassWords }
2536 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2537 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2538 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2544 None of the templates provides this layout exactly. The nearest is
2545 @q{SATB vocal score and automatic piano reduction} -- see @ref{Vocal
2546 ensembles} -- but we need to change the layout and add a piano
2547 accompaniment which is not derived automatically from the vocal parts.
2548 The variables holding the music and words for the vocal parts are
2549 fine, but we shall need to add variables for the piano reduction.
2551 The order in which the contexts appear in the ChoirStaff of the
2552 template do not correspond with the order in the vocal score shown
2553 above. We need to rearrange them so there are four staves with the
2554 words written directly underneath the notes for each part. All the
2555 voices should be @code{\voiceOne}, which is the default, so the
2556 @code{\voiceXXX} commands should be removed. We also need to specify
2557 the tenor clef for the tenors. The way in which lyrics are specified
2558 in the template has not yet been encountered so we need to use the
2559 method with which we are familiar. We should also add the names of
2562 Doing this gives for our ChoirStaff:
2566 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2567 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2568 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{ \global \sopranoMusic @}
2570 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{ \sopranoWords @}
2571 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2572 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2573 \new Voice = "altos" @{ \global \altoMusic @}
2575 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{ \altoWords @}
2576 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2577 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2578 \new Voice = "tenors" @{ \global \tenorMusic @}
2580 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{ \tenorWords @}
2581 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2582 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2583 \new Voice = "basses" @{ \global \bassMusic @}
2585 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{ \bassWords @}
2589 Next we must work out the piano part. This is
2590 easy - we just pull out the piano part from the
2591 @q{Solo piano} template:
2595 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2596 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2597 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2601 and add the variable definitions for @code{upper}
2604 The ChoirStaff and PianoStaff must be combined
2605 using angle brackets as we want them to be
2606 stacked one above the other:
2609 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff one above the other
2611 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2612 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{ \global \sopranoMusic @}
2614 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{ \sopranoWords @}
2615 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2616 \new Voice = "altos" @{ \global \altoMusic @}
2618 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{ \altoWords @}
2619 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2620 \clef "G_8" % tenor clef
2621 \new Voice = "tenors" @{ \global \tenorMusic @}
2623 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{ \tenorWords @}
2624 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2626 \new Voice = "basses" @{ \global \bassMusic @}
2628 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{ \bassWords @}
2632 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2633 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2634 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2639 Combining all these together and adding the music
2640 for the three bars of the example above gives:
2642 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2643 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2644 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' {
2646 r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2648 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2649 Wor -- thy is the lamb that was slain
2651 altoMusic = \relative a' {
2653 r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis fis2 |
2655 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2656 tenorMusic = \relative c' {
2658 r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2660 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2661 bassMusic = \relative c' {
2663 r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2665 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2666 upper = \relative a' {
2669 r4 <a d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2670 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2671 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2673 lower = \relative c, {
2676 <d d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2677 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2678 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2682 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2684 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2685 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2686 \new Voice = "sopranos" { \global \sopranoMusic }
2688 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" { \sopranoWords }
2689 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2690 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2691 \new Voice = "altos" { \global \altoMusic }
2693 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords }
2694 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2695 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2696 \new Voice = "tenors" { \global \tenorMusic }
2698 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords }
2699 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2700 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2701 \new Voice = "basses" { \global \bassMusic }
2703 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" { \bassWords }
2707 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2708 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2709 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2716 @node Building a score from scratch
2717 @subsection Building a score from scratch
2719 @cindex template, writing your own
2720 @cindex example of writing a score
2721 @cindex writing a score, example
2722 @cindex score, example of writing
2724 After gaining some facility with writing LilyPond code, you
2725 may find that it is easier to build a score from scratch
2726 rather than modifying one of the templates. You can also
2727 develop your own style this way to suit the sort of music you
2728 like. Let's see how to put together the score for an organ
2729 prelude as an example.
2731 We begin with a header section. Here go the title, name
2732 of composer, etc, then come any variable definitions, and
2733 finally the score block. Let's start with these in outline
2734 and fill in the details later.
2736 We'll use the first two bars of Bach's prelude
2737 based on @emph{Jesu, meine Freude} which is written for two
2738 manuals and pedal organ. You can see these two bars of music
2739 at the bottom of this section. The top manual part has two voices,
2740 the lower and pedal organ one each. So we need four
2741 music definitions and one to define the time signature
2745 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2747 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2748 composer = "J S Bach"
2750 TimeKey = @{ \time 4/4 \key c \minor @}
2751 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = @{s1@}
2752 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = @{s1@}
2753 ManualTwoMusic = @{s1@}
2754 PedalOrganMusic = @{s1@}
2760 For now we've just used a spacer note, @code{s1},
2761 instead of the real music. We'll add that later.
2763 Next let's see what should go in the score block.
2764 We simply mirror the staff structure we want.
2765 Organ music is usually written on three staves,
2766 one for each manual and one for the pedals. The
2767 manual staves should be bracketed together, so we
2768 need to use a PianoStaff for them. The first
2769 manual part needs two voices and the second manual
2774 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2775 \new Voice @{ \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic @}
2776 \new Voice @{ \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic @}
2777 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2778 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2779 \new Voice @{ \ManualTwoMusic @}
2780 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2781 >> % end PianoStaff context
2784 Next we need to add a staff for the pedal organ.
2785 This goes underneath the PianoStaff, but it must
2786 be simultaneous with it, so we need angle brackets
2787 around the two. Missing these out would generate
2788 an error in the log file. It's a common mistake
2789 which you'll make sooner or later! Try copying
2790 the final example at the end of this section,
2791 remove these angle brackets, and compile it to
2792 see what errors it generates.
2795 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2797 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2798 \new Voice @{ \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic @}
2799 \new Voice @{ \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic @}
2800 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2801 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2802 \new Voice @{ \ManualTwoMusic @}
2803 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2804 >> % end PianoStaff context
2805 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2806 \new Voice @{ \PedalOrganMusic @}
2811 It is not necessary to use the simultaneous construct
2812 @code{<< .. >>} for the manual two staff and the pedal organ staff,
2813 since they contain only one music expression, but it does no harm,
2814 and always using angle brackets after @code{\new Staff} is a good
2815 habit to cultivate in case there are multiple voices. The opposite
2816 is true for Voices: these should habitually be followed by braces
2817 @code{@{ .. @}} in case your music is coded in several variables
2818 which need to run consecutively.
2820 Let's add this structure to the score block, and adjust the indenting.
2821 We also add the appropriate clefs, ensure stems, ties and slurs in
2822 each voice on the upper staff point to the right direction with
2823 @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo}, and enter the time signature
2824 and key to each staff using our predefined variable, @code{\TimeKey}.
2828 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2830 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2831 \TimeKey % set time signature and key
2833 \new Voice @{ \voiceOne \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic @}
2834 \new Voice @{ \voiceTwo \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic @}
2835 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2836 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2839 \new Voice @{ \ManualTwoMusic @}
2840 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2841 >> % end PianoStaff context
2842 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2845 \new Voice @{ \PedalOrganMusic @}
2846 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2848 @} % end Score context
2851 That completes the structure. Any three-staff organ music
2852 will have a similar structure, although the number of voices
2853 may vary. All that remains now
2854 is to add the music, and combine all the parts together.
2856 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2858 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2859 composer = "J S Bach"
2861 TimeKey = { \time 4/4 \key c \minor }
2862 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = \relative g' {
2863 g4 g f ees | d2 c2 |
2865 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = \relative c' {
2866 ees16 d ees8~ ees16 f ees d c8 d~ d c~ |
2867 c c4 b8 c8. g16 c b c d |
2869 ManualTwoMusic = \relative c' {
2870 c16 b c8~ c16 b c g a8 g~ g16 g aes ees |
2871 f ees f d g aes g f ees d e8~ ees16 f ees d |
2873 PedalOrganMusic = \relative c {
2874 r8 c16 d ees d ees8~ ees16 a, b g c b c8 |
2875 r16 g ees f g f g8 c,2 |
2879 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2881 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2882 \TimeKey % set time signature and key
2884 \new Voice { \voiceOne \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic }
2885 \new Voice { \voiceTwo \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic }
2886 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2887 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2890 \new Voice { \ManualTwoMusic }
2891 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2892 >> % end PianoStaff context
2893 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2896 \new Voice { \PedalOrganMusic }
2897 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff context
2899 } % end Score context
2903 @node Saving typing with variables and functions
2904 @subsection Saving typing with variables and functions
2909 By this point, you've seen this kind of thing:
2911 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2912 hornNotes = \relative c'' { c4 b dis c }
2920 You may even realize that this could be useful in minimalist music:
2922 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2923 fragmentA = \relative c'' { a4 a8. b16 }
2924 fragmentB = \relative c'' { a8. gis16 ees4 }
2925 violin = \new Staff { \fragmentA \fragmentA \fragmentB \fragmentA }
2933 However, you can also use these variables (also known as
2934 macros, or user-defined commands) for tweaks:
2936 @c TODO Avoid padtext - not needed with skylining
2937 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2938 dolce = \markup{ \italic \bold dolce }
2939 padText = { \once \override TextScript #'padding = #5.0 }
2940 fthenp=_\markup{ \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p }
2941 violin = \relative c'' {
2943 c4._\dolce b8 a8 g a b |
2945 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e' f g d |
2946 c,4.\fthenp b8 c4 c-. |
2953 \layout{ragged-right=##t}
2957 These variables are obviously useful for saving
2958 typing. But they're worth considering even if you
2959 only use them once -- they reduce complexity. Let's
2960 look at the previous example without any
2961 variables. It's a lot harder to read, especially
2965 violin = \relative c'' @{
2967 c4._\markup@{ \italic \bold dolce @} b8 a8 g a b |
2968 \once \override TextScript #'padding = #5.0
2969 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e' f g d |
2970 c,4.\markup@{ \dynamic f \italic \small @{ 2nd @}
2971 \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p @} b8 c4 c-. |
2976 @c TODO Replace the following with a better example -td
2977 @c Skylining handles this correctly without padText
2979 So far we've seen static substitution -- when LilyPond
2980 sees @code{\padText}, it replaces it with the stuff that
2981 we've defined it to be (ie the stuff to the right of
2984 LilyPond can handle non-static substitution, too (you
2985 can think of these as functions).
2987 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2989 #(define-music-function (parser location padding) (number?)
2991 \once \override TextScript #'padding = #$padding
2995 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
2997 c4^"piu mosso" d e f
2999 c4^"piu mosso" fis a g
3003 Using variables is also a good way to reduce work if the
3004 LilyPond input syntax changes (see @rprogram{Updating old input files}). If
3005 you have a single definition (such as @code{\dolce}) for all your
3006 input files (see @ref{Style sheets}), then if the syntax changes, you
3007 only need to update your single @code{\dolce} definition,
3008 instead of making changes throughout every @code{.ly} file.
3011 @node Scores and parts
3012 @subsection Scores and parts
3014 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
3015 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Variables can
3016 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
3017 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
3018 both the part and the full score.
3020 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
3021 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
3022 of a horn/@/bassoon duo
3025 hornNotes = \relative c @{
3032 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
3035 \include "horn-music.ly"
3037 instrument = "Horn in F"
3041 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
3048 \include "horn-music.ly"
3052 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
3053 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
3054 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
3055 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth upwards. Sounding
3056 @code{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the
3057 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
3058 in the following output
3060 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3061 \transpose f c' \relative c {
3067 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
3068 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
3069 rest. It is entered with a capital @code{R} followed by a duration
3070 (@code{1}@tie{}for a whole note, @code{2}@tie{}for a half note,
3071 etc.). By multiplying the
3072 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
3073 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
3079 When printing the part, multi-rests
3080 must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable
3083 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
3087 This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the
3088 @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and
3089 this option to the music above, leads to the following result
3091 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3092 \transpose f c' \relative c {
3094 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
3101 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
3102 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
3103 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
3106 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
3107 \include "horn-music.ly"
3110 \new Staff \hornNotes
3111 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
3118 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3126 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b bes |
3127 a8 e f4 | g d | gis f