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13 @node Fundamental concepts
14 @chapter Fundamental concepts
16 You've seen in the Tutorial how to produce beautifully printed
17 music from a simple text file. This section introduces the
18 concepts and techniques required to produce equally beautiful
19 but more complex scores.
22 * How LilyPond input files work::
23 * Voices contain music::
24 * Contexts and engravers::
25 * Extending the templates::
29 @node How LilyPond input files work
30 @section How LilyPond input files work
32 The LilyPond input format is quite free-form, giving experienced
33 users a lot of flexibility to structure their files however they
34 wish. But this flexibility can make things confusing for new
35 users. This section will explain some of this structure, but may
36 gloss over some details in favor of simplicity. For a complete
37 description of the input format, see @ruser{File structure}.
40 * Introduction to the LilyPond file structure::
41 * Score is a (single) compound musical expression::
42 * Nesting music expressions::
43 * On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties::
46 @node Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
47 @subsection Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
50 @cindex file structure
52 A basic example of a LilyPond input file is
55 \version @w{"@version{}"}
60 @var{...compound music expression...} % all the music goes here!
67 There are many variations of this basic pattern, but this
68 example serves as a useful starting place.
77 Up to this point none of the examples you have seen have used a
78 @code{\score@{@}} command. This is because LilyPond automatically
79 adds the extra commands which are needed when you give it simple
80 input. LilyPond treats input like this:
89 as shorthand for this:
106 In other words, if the input contains a single music expression,
107 LilyPond will interpret the file as though the music expression
108 was wrapped up inside the commands shown above.
110 @cindex implicit contexts
111 @cindex contexts, implicit
113 @strong{A word of warning!} Many of the examples in the LilyPond
114 documentation will omit the @code{\new Staff} and @code{\new Voice}
115 commands, leaving them to be created implicitly. For simple
116 examples this works well, but for more complex examples, especially
117 when additional commands are used, the implicit creation of contexts
118 can give surprising results, maybe creating extra unwanted staves.
119 The way to create contexts explicitly is explained in
120 @ref{Contexts and engravers}.
122 @warning{When entering more than a few lines of music it is
123 advisable to always create staves and voices explicitly.}
125 For now, though, let us return to the first example and examine the
126 @code{\score} command, leaving the others to default.
128 A @code{\score} block must always contain just one music expression,
129 and this must appear immediately after the @code{\score} command.
130 Remember that a music expression could be anything from a single
131 note to a huge compound expression like
136 @var{...insert the whole score of a Wagner opera in here...}
142 Since everything is inside @code{@{ ... @}}, it counts
143 as one music expression.
145 As we saw previously, the @code{\score} block can contain other
168 Note that these three commands -- @code{\header}, @code{\layout} and
169 @code{\midi} -- are special: unlike many other commands which begin
170 with a backward slash (@code{\}) they are @emph{not} music expressions
171 and are not part of any music expression. So they may be placed
172 inside a @code{\score} block or outside it. In fact, these commands
173 are commonly placed outside the @code{\score} block -- for example,
174 @code{\header} is often placed above the @code{\score} command, as the
175 example at the beginning of this section shows.
177 Two more commands you have not previously seen are
178 @code{\layout @{ @}} and @code{\midi @{@}}. If these appear as
179 shown they will cause LilyPond to produce a printed output and a
180 MIDI output respectively. They are described fully in the
181 Notation Reference -- @ruser{Score layout}, and
182 @ruser{Creating MIDI files}.
184 @cindex scores, multiple
185 @cindex book block, implicit
186 @cindex implicit book block
190 You may code multiple @code{\score} blocks. Each will be
191 treated as a separate score, but they will be all combined into
192 a single output file. A @code{\book} command is not necessary
193 -- one will be implicitly created. However, if you would like
194 separate output files from one @file{.ly} file then the
195 @code{\book} command should be used to separate the different
196 sections: each @code{\book} block will produce a
197 separate output file.
201 Every @code{\book} block creates a separate output file (e.g., a
202 PDF file). If you haven't explicitly added one, LilyPond wraps
203 your entire input code in a @code{\book} block implicitly.
205 Every @code{\score} block is a separate chunk of music within a
208 @cindex layout block, effect of location
210 Every @code{\layout} block affects the @code{\score} or
211 @code{\book} block in which it appears -- i.e., a @code{\layout}
212 block inside a @code{\score} block affects only that @code{\score}
213 block, but a @code{\layout} block outside of a @code{\score} block
214 (and thus in a @code{\book} block, either explicitly or
215 implicitly) will affect every @code{\score} in that @code{\book}.
217 For details see @ruser{Multiple scores in a book}.
221 Another great shorthand is the ability to define variables, as
222 shown in @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}. All the
226 melody = \relative c' @{
235 When LilyPond looks at this file, it takes the value of
236 @code{melody} (everything after the equals sign) and inserts it
237 whenever it sees @code{\melody}. There's nothing special about
238 the name -- it could be @code{melody}, @code{global},
239 @code{keyTime}, @code{pianorighthand}, or something else.
240 Remember that you can use almost any name you like as long as it
241 contains just alphabetic characters and is distinct from LilyPond
242 command names. For more details, see @ref{Saving typing with
243 variables and functions}. The exact limitations on variable names
244 are detailed in @ruser{File structure}.
248 For a complete definition of the input format, see
249 @ruser{File structure}.
252 @node Score is a (single) compound musical expression
253 @subsection Score is a (single) compound musical expression
258 @cindex contents of a score block
259 @cindex score block, contents of
260 @cindex compound music expression
261 @cindex music expression, compound
263 We saw the general organization of LilyPond input files in the
264 previous section, @ref{Introduction to the LilyPond file structure}.
265 But we seemed to skip over the most important part: how do we figure
266 out what to write after @code{\score}?
268 We didn't skip over it at all. The big mystery is simply that
269 there @emph{is} no mystery. This line explains it all:
272 @emph{A @code{\score} block must begin with a compound music expression.}
276 To understand what is meant by a music expression and a compound
277 music expression, you may find it useful to review the tutorial,
278 @ref{Music expressions explained}. In that section, we saw how to
279 build big music expressions from small pieces -- we started from
280 notes, then chords, etc. Now we're going to start from a big
281 music expression and work our way down. For simplicity, we'll use
282 just a singer and piano in our example. We don't need a
283 @code{StaffGroup} for this ensemble, which simply groups a number
284 of staves together with a bracket at the left, but we do need
285 staves for a singer and a piano, though.
290 \new Staff = "singer" <<
292 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
299 Here we have given names to the staves -- @qq{singer} and
300 @qq{piano}. This is not essential here, but it is a useful habit
301 to cultivate so that you can see at a glance what each stave is
304 Remember that we use @code{<< ... >>} instead of @code{@{ ... @}} to
305 show simultaneous music. This causes the vocal part and piano part
306 to appear one above the other in the score. The @code{<< ... >>}
307 construct would not be necessary for the Singer staff in the example
308 above if it were going to contain only one sequential music
309 expression, but @code{<< ... >>} rather than braces is necessary if
310 the music in the Staff is to contain two or more simultaneous
311 expressions, e.g. two simultaneous Voices, or a Voice with lyrics.
312 We're going to have a voice with lyrics, so angle brackets are
313 required. We'll add some real music later; for now let's just put
314 in some dummy notes and lyrics. If you've forgotten how to add lyrics
315 you may wish to review @code{\addlyrics} in @ref{Setting simple songs}.
317 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
320 \new Staff = "singer" <<
321 \new Voice = "vocal" { c'1 }
324 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
325 \new Staff = "upper" { c'1 }
326 \new Staff = "lower" { c'1 }
333 Now we have a lot more details. We have the singer's staff: it
334 contains a @code{Voice} (in LilyPond, this term refers to a set of
335 notes, not necessarily vocal notes -- for example, a violin
336 generally plays one voice) and some lyrics. We also have a piano
337 staff: it contains an upper staff (right hand) and a lower staff
338 (left hand), although the lower staff has yet to be given a bass
341 At this stage, we could start filling in notes. Inside the curly
342 braces next to @code{\new Voice = "vocal"}, we could start writing
350 But if we did that, the @code{\score} section would get pretty
351 long, and it would be harder to understand what was happening. So
352 let's use variables instead. These were introduced at the end
353 of the previous section, remember? To ensure the contents of the
354 @code{text} variable are interpreted as lyrics we preface them with
355 @code{\lyricmode}. Like @code{\addlyrics}, this switches the input
356 mode to lyrics. Without that, LilyPond would try to interpret the
357 contents as notes, which would generate errors. (Several other
358 input modes are available, see @ruser{Input modes}.)
360 So, adding a few notes and a bass clef for the left hand, we now
361 have a piece of real music:
363 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
364 melody = \relative c'' { r4 d8\noBeam g, c4 r }
365 text = \lyricmode { And God said, }
366 upper = \relative c'' { <g d g,>2~ <g d g,> }
367 lower = \relative c { b2 e }
371 \new Staff = "singer" <<
372 \new Voice = "vocal" { \melody }
375 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
376 \new Staff = "upper" { \upper }
377 \new Staff = "lower" {
387 When writing (or reading) a @code{\score} section, just take it
388 slowly and carefully. Start with the outer level, then work on
389 each smaller level. It also really helps to be strict with
390 indentation -- make sure that each item on the same level starts
391 on the same horizontal position in your text editor.
395 Notation Reference: @ruser{Structure of a score}.
398 @node Nesting music expressions
399 @subsection Nesting music expressions
401 @cindex staves, temporary
402 @cindex temporary staves
405 It is not essential to declare all staves at the beginning; they may
406 be introduced temporarily at any point. This is particularly useful
407 for creating ossia sections -- see @rglos{ossia}. Here is a simple
408 example showing how to introduce a new staff temporarily for the
409 duration of three notes:
411 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
428 Note that the size of the clef is the same as a clef printed
429 following a clef change -- slightly smaller than the clef
430 at the beginning of the line. This is usual for clefs printed
431 in the middle of a line.
433 @cindex staff, positioning
435 The ossia section may be placed above the staff
438 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
439 \new Staff = "main" {
446 alignAboveContext = #"main"
454 This example uses @code{\with}, which will be explained more
455 fully later. It is a means of modifying the default behavior
456 of a single Staff. Here it says that the new staff should be
457 placed above the staff called @qq{main} instead of the default
458 position which is below.
462 Ossia are often written without clef and without
463 time signature and are usually in a smaller font.
464 These require further commands which
465 have not yet been introduced. See @ref{Size of objects},
466 and @ruser{Ossia staves}.
469 @node On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
470 @subsection On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
472 @cindex brackets, nesting
473 @cindex bracket types
474 @cindex brackets, enclosing vs. marking
476 You have already met a number of different types of bracket and
477 bracket-like constructs in writing the input file to LilyPond.
478 These obey different rules which can be confusing at first.
479 Let's first review the different types of brackets and bracket-like
482 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
484 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
485 @headitem Bracket Type
487 @item @code{@{ .. @}}
488 @tab Encloses a sequential segment of music
490 @tab Encloses the notes of a chord
491 @item @code{<< .. >>}
492 @tab Encloses simultaneous music expressions
494 @tab Marks the start and end of a slur
495 @item @code{\( .. \)}
496 @tab Marks the start and end of a phrasing slur
498 @tab Marks the start and end of a manual beam
501 To these we should add other constructs which generate lines
502 between or across notes: ties (marked by a tilde, @code{~}),
503 tuplets written as @code{\times x/y @{..@}}, and grace notes
504 written as @code{\grace@{..@}}.
506 Outside LilyPond, the conventional use of brackets requires the
507 different types to be properly nested, like this, @code{<< [ @{ ( .. )
508 @} ] >>}, with the closing brackets being encountered in exactly the
509 opposite order to the opening brackets. This @strong{is} a
510 requirement for the three types of bracket described by the word
511 @q{Encloses} in the table above -- they must nest properly. However,
512 the remaining bracket-like constructs, described with the word
513 @q{Marks} in the table above together with ties and tuplets, do
514 @strong{not} have to nest properly with any of the brackets or
515 bracket-like constructs. In fact, these are not brackets in
516 the sense that they enclose something -- they are simply markers to
517 indicate where something starts and ends.
519 So, for example, a phrasing slur can start before a manually
520 inserted beam and end before the end of the beam -- not very
521 musical, perhaps, but possible:
523 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=2]
524 g8\( a b[ c b\) a] g4
527 In general, different kinds of brackets, bracket-like constructs,
528 and those implied by tuplets, ties and grace notes, may be mixed
529 freely. This example shows a beam extending into a tuplet (line 1),
530 a slur extending into a tuplet (line 2), a beam and a slur
531 extending into a tuplet, a tie crossing two tuplets, and a
532 phrasing slur extending out of a tuplet (lines 3 and 4).
534 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1]
535 r16[ g \times 2/3 { r16 e'8] }
536 g,16( a \times 2/3 { b16 d) e }
537 g,8[( a \times 2/3 { b8 d) e~] } |
538 \times 4/5 { e32\( a, b d e } a4.\)
542 @node Voices contain music
543 @section Voices contain music
545 Singers need voices to sing, and so does LilyPond.
546 The actual music for all instruments in a score
547 is contained in Voices -- the most fundamental
548 of all LilyPond's concepts.
551 * I'm hearing Voices::
552 * Explicitly instantiating voices::
553 * Voices and vocals::
556 @node I'm hearing Voices
557 @subsection I'm hearing Voices
561 @cindex multiple voices
562 @cindex voices, multiple
563 @cindex Voice context
564 @cindex context, Voice
565 @cindex simultaneous music
566 @cindex music, simultaneous
567 @cindex concurrent music
568 @cindex music, concurrent
569 @cindex voices vs. chords
570 @cindex chords vs. voices
572 The lowest, most fundamental or innermost layers in a LilyPond
573 score are called @q{Voice contexts} or just @q{Voices} for short.
574 Voices are sometimes called @q{layers} in other notation
577 In fact, a Voice layer or context is the only one which can contain
578 music. If a Voice context is not explicitly declared one is created
579 automatically, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter. Some
580 instruments such as an Oboe can play only one note at a time. Music
581 written for such instruments is monophonic and requires just a single
582 voice. Instruments which can play more than one note at a time like
583 the piano will often require multiple voices to encode the different
584 concurrent notes and rhythms they are capable of playing.
586 A single voice can contain many notes in a chord, of course,
587 so when exactly are multiple voices needed? Look first at
588 this example of four chords:
590 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1]
592 <d g>4 <d fis> <d a'> <d g>
595 This can be expressed using just the single angle bracket chord
596 symbols, @code{< ... >}, and for this just a single voice is
597 needed. But suppose the F-sharp were actually an eighth-note
598 followed by an eighth-note G, a passing note on the way to the A?
599 Now we have two notes which start at the same time but have
600 different durations: the quarter-note D and the eighth-note
601 F-sharp. How are these to be coded? They cannot be written as
602 a chord because all the notes in a chord must have the same
603 duration. And they cannot be written as two sequential notes
604 as they need to start at the same time. This is when two
607 Let us see how this is done in LilyPond input syntax.
612 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a
613 staff is to enter each voice as a sequence (with @code{@{...@}}),
614 and combine them simultaneously with angle brackets, @code{<<...>>}.
615 The fragments must also be separated with double backward slashes,
616 @code{\\}, to place them in separate voices. Without these, the
617 notes would be entered into a single voice, which would usually
618 cause errors. This technique is particularly suited to pieces of
619 music which are largely monophonic with occasional short sections
622 Here's how we split the chords above into two voices and add both
623 the passing note and a slur:
625 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=2]
627 % Voice "1" Voice "2"
628 << { g4 fis8( g) a4 g } \\ { d4 d d d } >>
631 Notice how the stems of the second voice now point down.
633 Here's another simple example:
635 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=2]
637 % Voice "1" Voice "2"
638 << { r4 g g4. a8 } \\ { d,2 d4 g } >> |
639 << { bes4 bes c bes } \\ { g4 g g8( a) g4 } >> |
640 << { a2. r4 } \\ { fis2. s4 } >> |
643 It is not necessary to use a separate @code{<< \\ >>} construct
644 for each bar. For music with few notes in each bar this layout
645 can help the legibility of the code, but if there are many
646 notes in each bar it may be better to split out each voice
647 separately, like this:
649 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=2]
665 @cindex voices, naming
666 @cindex voices crossing brackets
667 @cindex slurs crossing brackets
668 @cindex ties crossing brackets
670 This example has just two voices, but the same construct may be
671 used to encode three or more voices by adding more back-slash
674 The Voice contexts bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
675 In each of these contexts, the vertical direction of slurs,
676 stems, ties, dynamics etc., is set appropriately.
678 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
679 \new Staff \relative c' {
682 % Voice "1" Voice "2" Voice "3"
683 << { g4 f e } \\ { r8 e4 d c8~ } >> |
684 << { d2 e } \\ { c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 } \\ { s4 b c2 } >> |
688 These voices are all separate from the main voice that contains
689 the notes just outside the @code{<< .. >>} construct. Let's call
690 this the @emph{simultaneous construct}. Slurs and ties may only
691 connect notes within the same voice, so slurs and ties cannot go
692 into or out of a simultaneous construct. Conversely,
693 parallel voices from separate simultaneous constructs on the same
694 staff are the same voice. Other voice-related properties also
695 carry across simultaneous constructs. Here is the same example,
696 with different colors and note heads for each voice. Note that
697 changes in one voice do not affect other voices, but they do
698 persist in the same voice later. Note also that tied notes may be
699 split across the same voices in two constructs, shown here in the
702 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
703 \new Staff \relative c' {
722 { c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 }
732 @funindex \voiceOneStyle
733 @funindex \voiceTwoStyle
734 @funindex \voiceThreeStyle
735 @funindex \voiceFourStyle
736 @funindex \voiceNeutralStyle
738 The commands @code{\voiceXXXStyle} are mainly intended for use in
739 educational documents such as this one. They modify the color
740 of the note head, the stem and the beams, and the style of the
741 note head, so that the voices may be easily distinguished.
742 Voice one is set to red diamonds, voice two to blue triangles,
743 voice three to green crossed circles, and voice four (not used
744 here) to magenta crosses; @code{\voiceNeutralStyle} (also not
745 used here) reverts the style back to the default.
746 We shall see later how commands like these may be created by the
748 See @ref{Visibility and color of objects} and
749 @ref{Using variables for tweaks}.
751 @cindex polyphony and relative note entry
752 @cindex relative note entry and polyphony
754 Polyphony does not change the relationship of notes within a
755 @code{\relative} block. Each note is still calculated relative to
756 the note immediately preceding it, or to the first note of the
757 preceding chord. So in
760 \relative c' @{ noteA << < noteB noteC > \\ noteD >> noteE @}
764 @code{noteB} is relative to @code{noteA} @*
765 @code{noteC} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA}; @*
766 @code{noteD} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA} or
768 @code{noteE} is relative to @code{noteD}, not @code{noteA}.
770 An alternative way, which may be clearer if the notes in the
771 voices are widely separated, is to place a @code{\relative}
772 command at the start of each voice:
775 \relative c' @{ noteA ... @}
777 \relative c'' @{ < noteB noteC > ... @}
779 \relative g' @{ noteD ... @}
781 \relative c' @{ noteE ... @}
784 Let us finally analyze the voices in a more complex piece of music.
785 Here are the notes from the first two bars of the second of Chopin's
786 Deux Nocturnes, Op 32. This example will be used at later stages in
787 this and the next chapter to illustrate several techniques for
788 producing notation, so please ignore for now anything in the
789 underlying code which looks mysterious and concentrate just on the
790 music and the voices -- the complications will all be explained in
793 @c The following should appear as music without code
794 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
795 \new Staff \relative c'' {
804 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
805 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0
807 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0.5
815 The direction of the stems is often used to indicate the continuity of
816 two simultaneous melodic lines. Here the stems of the highest notes
817 are all pointing up and the stems of the lower notes are all pointing
818 down. This is the first indication that more than one voice is
821 But the real need for multiple voices arises when notes
822 which start at the same time have different durations.
823 Look at the notes which start at beat three in the first
824 bar. The A-flat is a dotted quarter note, the F is a
825 quarter note and the D-flat is a half note. These
826 cannot be written as a chord as all the notes in a chord
827 must have the same duration. Neither can they be written
828 as sequential notes, as they must start at the same time.
829 This section of the bar requires three voices, and the
830 normal practice would be to write the whole bar as three
831 voices, as shown below, where we have used different note heads
832 and colors for the three voices. Again, the code behind this
833 example will be explained later, so ignore anything you do
836 @c The following should appear as music without code
837 @c The three voice styles should be defined in -init
838 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
839 \new Staff \relative c'' {
850 \\ % No Voice three (we want stems down)
853 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
854 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0
856 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0.5
865 Let us try to encode this music from scratch. As we
866 shall see, this encounters some difficulties. We begin as
867 we have learnt, using the @code{<< \\ >>} construct to
868 enter the music of the first bar in three voices:
870 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
871 \new Staff \relative c'' {
874 { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\ { aes2 f4 fes } \\ { <ees c>2 des }
881 @cindex voices and stem directions
882 @cindex stem directions and voices
885 The stem directions are automatically assigned with the
886 odd-numbered voices taking upward stems and the even-numbered
887 voices downward ones. The stems for voices 1 and 2 are right,
888 but the stems in voice 3 should go down in this particular piece
889 of music. We can correct this by skipping voice three
890 and placing the music in voice four. This is done by simply
891 adding another pair of @code{\\}.
893 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
894 \new Staff \relative c'' {
900 \\ % Omit Voice three
909 We see that this fixes the stem direction, but exposes a problem
910 sometimes encountered with multiple voices -- the stems of the notes
911 in one voice can collide with the note heads in other voices. In
912 laying out the notes, LilyPond allows the notes or chords from two
913 voices to occupy the same vertical note column provided the stems are
914 in opposite directions, but the notes from the third and fourth voices
915 are displaced, if necessary, to avoid the note heads colliding. This
916 usually works well, but in this example the notes of the lowest voice
917 are clearly not well placed by default. LilyPond provides several ways
918 to adjust the horizontal placing of notes. We are not quite ready yet
919 to see how to correct this, so we shall leave this problem until a
920 later section --- see the @code{force-hshift} property in
921 @ref{Fixing overlapping notation}.
923 @warning{Lyrics, spanners (such as slurs, ties, hairpins etc.) cannot be
924 created @q{across} voices.}
928 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
931 @node Explicitly instantiating voices
932 @subsection Explicitly instantiating voices
938 @funindex \voiceThree
945 @cindex voice contexts, creating
947 Voice contexts can also be created manually
948 inside a @code{<< >>} block to create polyphonic music, using
949 @code{\voiceOne} @dots{} @code{\voiceFour} to indicate the required
950 directions of stems, slurs, etc. In longer scores this method
951 is clearer, as it permits the voices to be separated and to be
952 given more descriptive names.
954 Specifically, the construct @code{<< \\ >>} which we used in
955 the previous section:
960 << @{ e4 f g a @} \\ @{ c,4 d e f @} >>
970 \new Voice = "1" @{ \voiceOne \relative c' @{ e4 f g a @} @}
971 \new Voice = "2" @{ \voiceTwo \relative c' @{ c4 d e f @} @}
975 Both of the above would produce
977 @c The following example should not display the code
978 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
980 \new Voice = "1" { \voiceOne \relative c' { e4 f g a } }
981 \new Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo \relative c' { c4 d e f } }
985 @cindex voices, reverting to single
986 @cindex reverting to a single voice
988 The @code{\voiceXXX} commands set the direction of stems, slurs,
989 ties, articulations, text annotations, augmentation dots of dotted
990 notes, and fingerings. @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceThree}
991 make these objects point upwards, while @code{\voiceTwo} and
992 @code{\voiceFour} make them point downwards. These commands also
993 generate a horizontal shift for each voice when this is required
994 to avoid clashes of note heads. The command @code{\oneVoice}
995 reverts the settings back to the normal values for a single voice.
997 Let us see in some simple examples exactly what effect
998 @code{\oneVoice}, @code{\voiceOne} and @code{voiceTwo} have on
999 markup, ties, slurs, and dynamics:
1001 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1003 % Default behavior or behavior after \oneVoice
1004 c4 d8~ d e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1008 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1011 c4 d8~ d e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1013 c,4 d8~ d e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1017 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1020 c4 d8~ d e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1022 c,4 d8~ d e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1026 Now let's look at three different ways to notate the same passage
1027 of polyphonic music, each of which is advantageous in different
1028 circumstances, using the example from the previous section.
1030 An expression that appears directly inside a @code{<< >>} belongs
1031 to the main voice (but, note, @strong{not} in a @code{<< \\ >>}
1032 construct). This is useful when extra voices appear while the
1033 main voice is playing. Here is a more correct rendition of our
1034 example. The red diamond-shaped notes
1035 demonstrate that the main melody is now in a single voice context,
1036 permitting a phrasing slur to be drawn over them.
1038 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1039 \new Staff \relative c' {
1041 % The following notes are monophonic
1043 % Start simultaneous section of three voices
1045 % Continue the main voice in parallel
1046 { g4 f e | d2 e) | }
1047 % Initiate second voice
1049 % Set stems, etc., down
1051 r8 e4 d c8~ | c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 |
1053 % Initiate third voice
1055 % Set stems, etc, up
1063 @cindex nesting music expressions
1064 @cindex nesting simultaneous constructs
1065 @cindex nesting voices
1066 @cindex voices, temporary
1067 @cindex voices, nesting
1069 More deeply nested polyphony constructs are possible, and if a
1070 voice appears only briefly this might be a more natural way to
1073 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1074 \new Staff \relative c' {
1077 { g4 f e | d2 e) | }
1082 { c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 | }
1093 @cindex spacing notes
1095 This method of nesting new voices briefly is useful
1096 when only small sections of the music
1097 are polyphonic, but when the whole staff is largely polyphonic
1098 it can be clearer to use multiple voices throughout, using
1099 spacing notes to step over sections where the voice is silent,
1102 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1103 \new Staff \relative c' <<
1104 % Initiate first voice
1107 c16^( d e f g4 f e | d2 e) |
1109 % Initiate second voice
1111 % Set stems, etc, down
1113 s4 r8 e4 d c8~ | c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 |
1115 % Initiate third voice
1117 % Set stems, etc, up
1124 @subsubheading Note columns
1127 @cindex note collisions
1128 @cindex collisions, notes
1129 @cindex shift commands
1136 @funindex \shiftOnnn
1139 Closely spaced notes in a chord, or notes occurring at the same
1140 time in different voices, are arranged in two, occasionally more,
1141 columns to prevent the note heads overlapping. These are called
1142 note columns. There are separate columns for each voice, and
1143 the currently specified voice-dependent shift is applied to the
1144 note column if there would otherwise be a collision. This can
1145 be seen in the example above. In bar 2 the C in voice two is
1146 shifted to the right relative to the D in voice one, and in the
1147 final chord the C in voice three is also shifted to the right
1148 relative to the other notes.
1150 The @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, @code{\shiftOnnn}, and
1151 @code{\shiftOff} commands specify the degree to which notes and
1152 chords of the voice should be shifted if a collision
1153 would otherwise occur. By default, the outer voices (normally
1154 voices one and two) have @code{\shiftOff} specified, while the
1155 inner voices (three and four) have @code{\shiftOn} specified.
1156 When a shift is applied, voices one and three are shifted to
1157 the right and voices two and four to the left.
1159 @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn} define further shift
1160 levels which may be specified temporarily to resolve collisions
1161 in complex situations -- see @ref{Real music example}.
1163 A note column can contain just one note (or chord) from a voice
1164 with stems up and one note (or chord) from a voice with stems
1165 down. If notes from two voices which have their stems in the
1166 same direction are placed at the same position and both voices
1167 have no shift or the same shift specified, the error message
1168 @qq{Too many clashing note columns} will be produced.
1172 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
1175 @node Voices and vocals
1176 @subsection Voices and vocals
1178 Vocal music presents a special difficulty: we need to combine two
1179 expressions -- notes and lyrics.
1181 @funindex \new Lyrics
1185 @cindex Lyrics context, creating
1186 @cindex lyrics, linking to voice
1188 You have already seen the @code{\addlyrics@{@}} command, which
1189 handles simple scores well. However, this technique is
1190 quite limited. For more complex music, you must introduce the
1191 lyrics in a @code{Lyrics} context using @code{\new Lyrics} and
1193 the lyrics to the notes with @code{\lyricsto@{@}}, using the
1194 name assigned to the Voice.
1196 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1198 \new Voice = "one" {
1202 c4 b8. a16 | g4. f8 | e4 d | c2 |
1205 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
1206 No more let | sins and | sor -- rows | grow. |
1211 Note that the lyrics must be linked to a @code{Voice} context,
1212 @emph{not} a @code{Staff} context. This is a case where it is
1213 necessary to create @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts
1216 @cindex lyrics and beaming
1217 @cindex beaming and lyrics
1218 @funindex \autoBeamOff
1219 @funindex autoBeamOff
1221 The automatic beaming which LilyPond uses by default works well
1222 for instrumental music, but not so well for music with lyrics,
1223 where beaming is either not required at all or is used to indicate
1224 melismata in the lyrics. In the example above we use the command
1225 @code{\autoBeamOff} to turn off the automatic beaming.
1227 @funindex \new ChoirStaff
1228 @funindex ChoirStaff
1229 @funindex \lyricmode
1231 @cindex vocal score structure
1234 Let us reuse the earlier example from Judas Maccabæus to
1235 illustrate this more flexible technique. We first recast
1236 it to use variables so the music and lyrics can be separated
1237 from the staff structure. We also introduce a ChoirStaff
1238 bracket. The lyrics themselves must be introduced with
1239 @code{\lyricmode} to ensure they are interpreted as lyrics
1242 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1243 global = { \key f \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }
1245 SopOneMusic = \relative c'' {
1246 c8 | c8([ bes)] a a([ g)] f | f'4. b, | c4.~ c4
1248 SopOneLyrics = \lyricmode {
1249 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, __
1251 SopTwoMusic = \relative c' {
1252 r8 | r4. r4 c8 | a'8([ g)] f f([ e)] d | e8([ d)] c bes'
1254 SopTwoLyrics = \lyricmode {
1255 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn,
1261 \new Voice = "SopOne" {
1265 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopOne" {
1270 \new Voice = "SopTwo" {
1274 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopTwo" {
1282 This is the basic structure of all vocal scores. More staves may be
1283 added as required, more voices may be added to the staves, more verses
1284 may be added to the lyrics, and the variables containing the music can
1285 easily be placed in separate files should they become too long.
1287 @cindex hymn structure
1288 @cindex SATB structure
1289 @cindex vocal scores with multiple verses
1290 @cindex multiple vocal verses
1291 @cindex verses, multiple vocal
1293 Here is an example of the first line of a hymn with four
1294 verses, set for SATB. In this case the words for all four
1295 parts are the same. Note how we use variables to separate the
1296 music notation and words from the staff structure. See too
1297 how a variable, which we have chosen to call @q{keyTime}, is used
1298 to hold several commands for use within the two staves. In other
1299 examples this is often called @q{global}.
1301 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1302 keyTime = { \key c \major \time 4/4 \partial 4 }
1304 SopMusic = \relative c' { c4 | e4. e8 g4 g | a4 a g }
1305 AltoMusic = \relative c' { c4 | c4. c8 e4 e | f4 f e }
1306 TenorMusic = \relative c { e4 | g4. g8 c4. b8 | a8 b c d e4 }
1307 BassMusic = \relative c { c4 | c4. c8 c4 c | f8 g a b c4 }
1310 \lyricmode { E -- | ter -- nal fa -- ther, | strong to save, }
1312 \lyricmode { O | Christ, whose voice the | wa -- ters heard, }
1314 \lyricmode { O | Ho -- ly Spi -- rit, | who didst brood }
1316 \lyricmode { O | Tri -- ni -- ty of | love and pow'r }
1322 \new Voice = "Sop" { \voiceOne \keyTime \SopMusic }
1323 \new Voice = "Alto" { \voiceTwo \AltoMusic }
1324 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseOne }
1325 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseTwo }
1326 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseThree }
1327 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseFour }
1331 \new Voice = "Tenor" { \voiceOne \keyTime \TenorMusic }
1332 \new Voice = "Bass" { \voiceTwo \BassMusic }
1340 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1343 @node Contexts and engravers
1344 @section Contexts and engravers
1346 Contexts and engravers have been mentioned informally
1347 in earlier sections; we now must look at
1348 these concepts in more detail, as they are important
1349 in the fine-tuning of LilyPond output.
1353 * Contexts explained::
1354 * Creating contexts::
1355 * Engravers explained::
1356 * Modifying context properties::
1357 * Adding and removing engravers::
1360 @node Contexts explained
1361 @subsection Contexts explained
1363 @cindex contexts explained
1365 When music is printed, many notational elements which do not
1366 appear explicitly in the input file must be added to the
1367 output. For example, compare the input and output of the
1370 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1371 cis4 cis2. | a4 a2. |
1374 The input is rather sparse, but in the output, bar lines,
1375 accidentals, clef, and time signature have been added. When
1376 LilyPond @emph{interprets} the input the musical information
1377 is parsed from left to right, similar to the way a performer
1378 reads the score. While reading the input, the program remembers
1379 where measure boundaries are, and which pitches require explicit
1380 accidentals. This information must be held on several levels.
1381 For example, an accidental affects only a single staff, while
1382 a bar line must be synchronized across the entire score.
1384 Within LilyPond, these rules and bits of information are grouped in
1385 @emph{Contexts}. We have already introduced the @code{Voice} context.
1386 Others are the @code{Staff} and @code{Score} contexts. Contexts are
1387 hierarchical to reflect the hierarchical nature of a musical score.
1388 For example: a @code{Staff} context can contain many @code{Voice}
1389 contexts, and a @code{Score} context can contain many @code{Staff}
1393 @sourceimage{context-example,5cm,,}
1396 Each context has the responsibility for enforcing some notation rules,
1397 creating some notation objects and maintaining the associated
1398 properties. For example, the @code{Voice} context may introduce an
1399 accidental and then the @code{Staff} context maintains the rule to
1400 show or suppress the accidental for the remainder of the measure.
1402 As another example, the synchronization of bar lines is, by default,
1403 handled in the @code{Score} context.
1404 However, in some music we may not want the bar lines to be
1405 synchronized -- consider a polymetric score in 4/4 and 3/4 time.
1406 In such cases, we must modify the default settings of the
1407 @code{Score} and @code{Staff} contexts.
1409 For very simple scores, contexts are created implicitly, and you need
1410 not be aware of them. For larger pieces, such as anything with more
1411 than one staff, they must be
1412 created explicitly to make sure that you get as many staves as you
1413 need, and that they are in the correct order. For typesetting pieces
1414 with specialized notation, it is usual to modify existing, or
1415 even to define totally new, contexts.
1417 In addition to the @code{Score,} @code{Staff} and
1418 @code{Voice} contexts there are contexts which fit between
1419 the score and staff levels to control staff groups, such as the
1420 @code{PianoStaff} and @code{ChoirStaff} contexts. There
1421 are also alternative staff and voice contexts, and contexts for
1422 lyrics, percussion, fret boards, figured bass, etc.
1424 The names of all context types are formed from one or more
1425 words, each word being capitalized and joined immediately to the
1426 preceding word with no hyphen or underscore, e.g.,
1427 @code{GregorianTranscriptionStaff}.
1431 Notation Reference: @ruser{Contexts explained}.
1434 @node Creating contexts
1435 @subsection Creating contexts
1439 @cindex new contexts
1440 @cindex creating contexts
1441 @cindex contexts, creating
1443 In an input file a score block, introduced with a @code{\score}
1444 command, contains a single music expression and an associated
1445 output definition (either a @code{\layout} or a @code{\midi} block).
1446 The @code{Score} context is usually left to be created automatically
1447 when the interpretation of that music expression starts.
1449 For scores with only one voice and one staff, the @code{Voice} and
1450 @code{Staff} contexts may also be left to be created automatically,
1451 but for more complex scores it is necessary to create them by hand.
1452 The simplest command that does this is @code{\new}. It is prepended
1453 to a music expression, for example
1456 \new @var{type} @var{music-expression}
1460 where @var{type} is a context name (like @code{Staff} or
1461 @code{Voice}). This command creates a new context, and starts
1462 interpreting the @var{music-expression} within that context.
1464 @warning{@bs{}@code{new Score} should not be used as the essential
1465 top-level @code{Score} context is created automatically when the music
1466 expression within the @bs{}@code{score} block is interpreted. Score-wide
1467 default values of context properties can be changed within the
1468 @bs{}@code{layout} block. See @ref{Modifying context properties}}
1470 You have seen many practical examples which created new
1471 @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts in earlier sections, but
1472 to remind you how these commands are used in practice, here's an
1473 annotated real-music example:
1475 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1476 \score { % start of single compound music expression
1477 << % start of simultaneous staves section
1479 \new Staff { % create RH staff
1482 \new Voice { % create voice for RH notes
1483 \relative c'' { % start of RH notes
1489 \new Staff << % create LH staff; needs two simultaneous voices
1492 \new Voice { % create LH voice one
1494 \relative g { % start of LH voice one notes
1495 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1496 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1497 } % end of LH voice one notes
1498 } % end of LH voice one
1499 \new Voice { % create LH voice two
1501 \relative g { % start of LH voice two notes
1504 } % end of LH voice two notes
1505 } % end of LH voice two
1506 >> % end of LH staff
1507 >> % end of simultaneous staves section
1508 } % end of single compound music expression
1511 (Note how all the statements which open a block with either a
1512 curly bracket, @code{@{}, or double angle brackets, @code{<<},
1513 are indented by two further spaces, and the corresponding
1514 closing bracket is indented by exactly the same amount. While
1515 this is not required, following this practice will greatly
1516 reduce the number of @q{unmatched bracket} errors, and is
1517 strongly recommended. It enables the structure of the music to
1518 be seen at a glance, and any unmatched brackets will be obvious.
1519 Note too how the LH staff is created using double angle brackets
1520 because it requires two voices for its music, whereas the RH staff
1521 is created with a single music expression surrounded by curly
1522 brackets because it requires only one voice.)
1524 @cindex contexts, naming
1525 @cindex naming contexts
1527 The @code{\new} command may also give an identifying name to the
1528 context to distinguish it from other contexts of the same type,
1531 \new @var{type} = @var{id} @var{music-expression}
1534 Note the distinction between the name of the context type,
1535 @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}, etc, and the identifying name of a
1536 particular instance of that type, which can be any sequence of letters
1537 invented by the user. Digits and spaces can also be used in the
1538 identifying name, but then it has to be placed in quotes,
1539 i.e. @code{\new Staff = "MyStaff 1" @var{music-expression}}.
1540 The identifying name is used to
1541 refer back to that particular instance of a context. We saw this in
1542 use in the section on lyrics, see @ref{Voices and vocals}.
1546 Notation Reference: @ruser{Creating contexts}.
1549 @node Engravers explained
1550 @subsection Engravers explained
1554 Every mark on the printed output of a score produced by LilyPond
1555 is produced by an @code{Engraver}. Thus there is an engraver
1556 to print staves, one to print note heads, one for stems, one for
1557 beams, etc, etc. In total there are over 120 such engravers!
1558 Fortunately, for most scores it is not necessary to know about
1559 more than a few, and for simple scores you do not need to know
1562 Engravers live and operate in Contexts. Engravers such as the
1563 @code{Metronome_mark_engraver}, whose action and output apply to the
1564 score as a whole, operate in the highest level context -- the
1565 @code{Score} context.
1567 The @code{Clef_engraver} and @code{Key_engraver} are to be
1568 found in every @code{Staff} Context, as different staves may require
1569 different clefs and keys.
1571 The @code{Note_heads_engraver} and @code{Stem_engraver} live
1572 in every @code{Voice} context, the lowest level context of all.
1574 Each engraver processes the particular objects associated
1575 with its function, and maintains the properties that relate
1576 to that function. These properties, like the properties
1577 associated with contexts, may be modified to change the
1578 operation of the engraver or the appearance of those elements
1579 in the printed score.
1581 Engravers all have compound names formed from words which
1582 describe their function. Just the first word is capitalized,
1583 and the remainder are joined to it with underscores. Thus
1584 the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver} is responsible for creating the
1585 lines of the staff, the @code{Clef_engraver} determines and sets
1586 the pitch reference point on the staff by drawing a clef symbol.
1588 Here are some of the most common engravers together with their
1589 function. You will see it is usually easy to guess the function
1590 from the name, or vice versa.
1592 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
1595 @item Accidental_engraver
1596 @tab Makes accidentals, cautionary and suggested accidentals
1601 @item Completion_heads_engraver
1602 @tab Splits notes which cross bar lines
1603 @c The old Dynamic_engraver is deprecated. -jm
1604 @item New_dynamic_engraver
1605 @tab Creates hairpins and dynamic texts
1606 @item Forbid_line_break_engraver
1607 @tab Prevents line breaks if a musical element is still active
1609 @tab Creates the key signature
1610 @item Metronome_mark_engraver
1611 @tab Engraves metronome marking
1612 @item Note_heads_engraver
1613 @tab Engraves note heads
1616 @item Staff_symbol_engraver
1617 @tab Engraves the five (by default) lines of the staff
1619 @tab Creates stems and single-stem tremolos
1620 @item Time_signature_engraver
1621 @tab Creates time signatures
1626 We shall see later how the output of LilyPond can be changed
1627 by modifying the action of Engravers.
1631 Internals reference: @rinternals{Engravers and Performers}.
1634 @node Modifying context properties
1635 @subsection Modifying context properties
1637 @cindex context properties
1638 @cindex context properties, modifying
1639 @cindex modifying context properties
1645 Contexts are responsible for holding the values of a number of
1646 context @emph{properties}. Many of them can be changed to
1647 influence the interpretation of the input and so change the
1648 appearance of the output. They are changed by the
1649 @code{\set} command. This takes the form
1652 \set @emph{ContextName}.@emph{propertyName} = #@emph{value}
1655 Where the @emph{ContextName} is usually @code{Score},
1656 @code{Staff} or @code{Voice}. It may be omitted,
1657 in which case the current context (typically @code{Voice}) is assumed.
1659 The names of context properties consist of words joined
1660 together with no hyphens or underscores, all except the
1661 first having a capital letter. Here are a few examples
1662 of some commonly used ones. There are many more.
1664 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
1666 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .15 .45 .15
1667 @headitem propertyName
1673 @tab If true, set extra natural signs before accidentals
1674 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1675 @item currentBarNumber
1677 @tab Set the current bar number
1681 @tab If true, print slurs both above and below notes
1682 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1683 @item instrumentName
1685 @tab Set the name to be placed at the start of the staff
1686 @tab @code{"Cello I"}
1689 @tab Increase or decrease the font size
1693 @tab Set the text to print before the start of a verse
1698 where a Boolean is either True (@code{#t}) or False (@code{#f}),
1699 an Integer is a positive whole number, a Real is a positive
1700 or negative decimal number, and text is enclosed in double
1701 apostrophes. Note the occurrence of hash signs,
1702 (@code{#}), in two different places -- as part of the Boolean
1703 value before the @code{t} or @code{f}, and before @emph{value}
1704 in the @code{\set} statement. So when a Boolean is being
1705 entered you need to code two hash signs, e.g., @code{##t}.
1707 @cindex properties operating in contexts
1708 @cindex setting properties within contexts
1710 Before we can set any of these properties we need to know
1711 in which context they operate. Sometimes this is obvious,
1712 but occasionally it can be tricky. If the wrong context
1713 is specified, no error message is produced, but the expected
1714 action will not take place. For example, the
1715 @code{instrumentName} clearly lives in the @code{Staff} context, since
1716 it is the staff that is to be named.
1717 In this example the first staff is labeled, but not the second,
1718 because we omitted the context name.
1720 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1722 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1723 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
1726 \new Staff \relative c' {
1727 \set instrumentName = #"Alto" % Wrong!
1733 Remember the default context name is @code{Voice}, so the second
1734 @code{\set} command set the property @code{instrumentName} in the
1735 @code{Voice} context to @qq{Alto}, but as LilyPond does not look
1736 for any such property in the @code{Voice} context, no
1737 further action took place. This is not an error, and no error
1738 message is logged in the log file.
1740 Similarly, if the property name is mis-spelt no error message is
1741 produced, and clearly the expected action cannot be performed. In
1742 fact, you can set any (fictitious) @q{property} using any name you
1743 like in any context that exists by using the @code{\set} command. But
1744 if the name is not known to LilyPond it will not cause any action to
1745 be taken. Some text editors with special support for LilyPond input
1746 files document property names with bullets when you hover them with
1747 the mouse, like JEdit with LilyPondTool, or highlight unknown property
1748 names differently, like ConTEXT. If you do not use an editor with
1749 such features, it is recommended to check the property name in the
1750 Internals Reference: see @rinternals{Tunable context properties}, or
1751 @rinternals{Contexts}.
1753 The @code{instrumentName} property will take effect only
1754 if it is set in the @code{Staff} context, but
1755 some properties can be set in more than one context.
1756 For example, the property @code{extraNatural} is by
1757 default set to ##t (true) for all staves.
1758 If it is set to ##f (false) in one particular @code{Staff}
1759 context it applies just to the accidentals on that staff.
1760 If it is set to false in the @code{Score} context
1761 it applies to all staves.
1763 So this turns off extra naturals in one staff:
1765 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1767 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1770 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1771 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1778 and this turns them off in all staves:
1780 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1782 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1785 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1786 \set Score.extraNatural = ##f
1792 As another example, if @code{clefOctavation} is set in
1793 the @code{Score} context this immediately changes the value
1794 of the octavation in all current staves and sets a new default
1795 value which will be applied to all staves.
1797 The opposite command, @code{\unset}, effectively removes the
1798 property from the context, which causes most properties to
1799 revert to their default value. Usually @code{\unset} is not
1800 required as a new @code{\set} command will achieve what is
1803 The @code{\set} and @code{\unset} commands can appear anywhere
1804 in the input file and will take effect from the time they are
1805 encountered until the end of the score or until the property is
1806 @code{\set} or @code{\unset} again. Let's try changing the
1807 font size, which affects the size of the note heads (among
1808 other things) several times. The change is from the default
1809 value, not the most recently set value.
1811 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1]
1813 % make note heads smaller
1816 % make note heads larger
1817 \set fontSize = #2.5
1819 % return to default size
1824 We have now seen how to set the values of several different types of
1825 property. Note that integers and numbers are always preceded by a
1826 hash sign, @code{#}, while a true or false value is specified by
1827 @code{##t} and @code{##f}, with two hash signs. A text property
1828 should be enclosed in double quotation signs, as above, although we
1829 shall see later that text can actually be specified in a much more
1830 general way by using the very powerful @code{\markup} command.
1832 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\with}
1836 @cindex context properties, setting with \with
1838 The default value of context properties may be set at the time the
1839 context is created. Sometimes this is a clearer way of setting a
1840 property value if it is to remain fixed for the duration of
1841 the context. When a context is created with a @code{\new}
1842 command it may be followed immediately by a @code{\with @{ .. @}}
1843 block in which the default property values are set. For example,
1844 if we wish to suppress the printing of extra naturals for the
1845 duration of a staff we would write:
1848 \new Staff \with @{ extraNatural = ##f @}
1854 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1858 gisis4 gis aeses aes
1861 \new Staff \with { extraNatural = ##f } {
1863 gisis4 gis aeses aes
1869 Properties set in this way may still be changed dynamically using
1870 @code{\set} and returned to the default value set in the
1871 @code{\with} block with @code{\unset}.
1873 @cindex fontSize, default and setting
1875 So if the @code{fontSize} property is set in a @code{\with} clause
1876 it sets the default value of the font size. If it is later changed
1877 with @code{\set}, this new default value may be restored with the
1878 @code{\unset fontSize} command.
1880 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\context}
1882 @cindex context properties, setting with \context
1886 The values of context properties may be set in @emph{all} contexts
1887 of a particular type, such as all @code{Staff} contexts, with a single
1888 command. The context type is identified by using its
1889 type name, like @code{Staff}, prefixed by a back-slash: @code{\Staff}.
1890 The statement which sets the property value is the same as that in a
1891 @code{\with} block, introduced above. It is placed in a
1892 @code{\context} block within a @code{\layout} block. Each
1893 @code{\context} block will affect all contexts of the type specified
1894 throughout the @code{\score} or @code{\book} block in which the
1895 @code{\layout} block appears. Here is a example to show the format:
1897 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1913 If the property override is to be applied to all staves
1916 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1921 gisis4 gis aeses aes
1926 gisis4 gis aeses aes
1932 \Score extraNatural = ##f
1939 Context properties set in this way may be overridden for particular
1940 instances of contexts by statements in a @code{\with} block, and by
1941 @code{\set} commands embedded in music statements.
1946 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
1947 @ruser{The set command}.
1949 Internals Reference:
1950 @rinternals{Contexts},
1951 @rinternals{Tunable context properties}.
1954 @node Adding and removing engravers
1955 @subsection Adding and removing engravers
1957 @cindex engravers, adding
1958 @cindex adding engravers
1959 @cindex engravers, removing
1960 @cindex removing engravers
1967 We have seen that contexts each contain several engravers, each
1968 of which is responsible for producing a particular part of the
1969 output, like bar lines, staves, note heads, stems, etc. If an
1970 engraver is removed from a context, it can no longer produce its
1971 output. This is a crude way of modifying the output, but it
1972 can sometimes be useful.
1974 @subsubheading Changing a single context
1976 To remove an engraver from a single context we use the
1977 @code{\with} command placed immediately after the context creation
1978 command, as in the previous section.
1980 As an illustration, let's repeat an example from the previous section
1981 with the staff lines removed. Remember that the staff lines are
1982 produced by the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}.
1984 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1986 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
1990 \set fontSize = #-4 % make note heads smaller
1992 \set fontSize = #2.5 % make note heads larger
1994 \unset fontSize % return to default size
1999 @cindex ambitus engraver
2001 Engravers can also be added to individual contexts.
2002 The command to do this is
2004 @code{\consists @var{Engraver_name}},
2007 placed inside a @code{\with} block. Some vocal scores have an ambitus
2008 placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the range of notes in
2009 that staff -- see @rglos{ambitus}. The ambitus is produced by the
2010 @code{Ambitus_engraver}, which is not normally included in any
2011 context. If we add it to the @code{Voice} context, it calculates the
2012 range from that voice only:
2014 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2017 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2034 but if we add the ambitus engraver to the
2035 @code{Staff} context, it calculates the range from all
2036 the notes in all the voices on that staff:
2038 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2040 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2058 @subsubheading Changing all contexts of the same type
2063 The examples above show how to remove or add engravers to
2064 individual contexts. It is also possible to remove or add
2065 engravers to every context of a specific type by placing the
2066 commands in the appropriate context in a @code{\layout}
2067 block. For example, if we wanted to show an ambitus for every
2068 staff in a four-staff score, we could write
2070 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2099 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2106 The values of context properties may also be set
2107 for all contexts of a particular type by including the
2108 @code{\set} command in a @code{\context} block in the
2112 Notation Reference: @ruser{Modifying context plug-ins},
2113 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
2116 The @code{Stem_engraver} and @code{Beam_engraver} attach their
2117 objects to note heads. If the @code{Note_heads_engraver} is removed
2118 no note heads are produced and therefore no stems or beams are created
2122 @node Extending the templates
2123 @section Extending the templates
2125 You've read the tutorial, you know how to write music, you
2126 understand the fundamental concepts. But how can you
2127 get the staves that you want? Well, you can find lots of
2128 templates (see @ref{Templates}) which may give you a start.
2129 But what if you want something that isn't covered there? Read on.
2132 * Soprano and cello::
2133 * Four-part SATB vocal score::
2134 * Building a score from scratch::
2135 * Saving typing with variables and functions::
2136 * Scores and parts::
2139 @node Soprano and cello
2140 @subsection Soprano and cello
2142 @cindex template, modifying
2143 @cindex modifying templates
2145 Start off with the template that seems closest to what you want to
2146 end up with. Let's say that you want to write something for
2147 soprano and cello. In this case, we would start with the
2148 @q{Notes and lyrics} template (for the soprano part).
2151 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2153 melody = \relative c' @{
2160 text = \lyricmode @{
2166 \new Voice = "one" @{
2170 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
2177 Now we want to add a cello part. Let's look at the @q{Notes only} example:
2180 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2182 melody = \relative c' @{
2196 We don't need two @code{\version} commands. We'll need the
2197 @code{melody} section. We don't want two @code{\score} sections
2198 -- if we had two @code{\score}s, we'd get the two parts separately.
2199 We want them together, as a duet. Within the @code{\score}
2200 section, we don't need two @code{\layout} or @code{\midi}.
2202 If we simply cut and paste the @code{melody} section, we would
2203 end up with two @code{melody} definitions. This would not generate
2204 an error, but the second one would be used for both melodies.
2205 So let's rename them to make them distinct. We'll call the
2206 section for the soprano @code{sopranoMusic} and the section for
2207 the cello @code{celloMusic}. While we're doing this, let's rename
2208 @code{text} to be @code{sopranoLyrics}. Remember to rename both
2209 instances of all these names -- both the initial definition (the
2210 @code{melody = \relative c' @{ } part) and the name's use (in the
2211 @code{\score} section).
2213 While we're doing this, let's change the cello part's staff --
2214 celli normally use bass clef. We'll also give the cello some
2218 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2220 sopranoMusic = \relative c' @{
2227 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode @{
2231 celloMusic = \relative c @{
2240 \new Voice = "one" @{
2244 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2251 This is looking promising, but the cello part won't appear in the
2252 score -- we haven't used it in the @code{\score} section. If we
2253 want the cello part to appear under the soprano part, we need to add
2256 \new Staff \celloMusic
2260 underneath the soprano stuff. We also need to add @code{<<} and
2261 @code{>>} around the music -- that tells LilyPond that there's
2262 more than one thing (in this case, two @code{Staves}) happening
2263 at once. The @code{\score} looks like this now:
2265 @c Indentation in this example is deliberately poor
2270 \new Voice = "one" @{
2274 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2276 \new Staff \celloMusic
2284 This looks a bit messy; the indentation is messed up now. That is
2285 easily fixed. Here's the complete soprano and cello template.
2287 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2288 sopranoMusic = \relative c' {
2295 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode {
2299 celloMusic = \relative c {
2309 \new Voice = "one" {
2313 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2315 \new Staff \celloMusic
2324 The starting templates can be found in the @q{Templates} appendix,
2325 see @ref{Single staff}.
2328 @node Four-part SATB vocal score
2329 @subsection Four-part SATB vocal score
2331 @cindex template, SATB
2332 @cindex SATB template
2334 Most vocal scores of music written for four-part mixed choir
2335 with orchestral accompaniment such as Mendelssohn's Elijah or
2336 Handel's Messiah have the choral music and words on four
2337 staves, one for each of SATB, with a piano reduction of the
2338 orchestral accompaniment underneath. Here's an example
2339 from Handel's Messiah:
2341 @c The following should appear as music without code
2342 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2343 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2345 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' {
2347 r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2349 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2350 Wor -- thy | is the lamb | that was slain |
2353 altoMusic = \relative a' {
2355 r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis e2 |
2357 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2359 tenorMusic = \relative c' {
2361 r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2363 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2365 bassMusic = \relative c' {
2367 r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2369 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2371 upper = \relative a' {
2374 r4 <a d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2375 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2376 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2379 lower = \relative c, {
2382 <d d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2383 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2384 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2388 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2390 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2391 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2392 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2397 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2400 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2401 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2402 \new Voice = "altos" {
2407 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords }
2408 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2409 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2410 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2415 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords }
2416 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2417 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2418 \new Voice = "basses" {
2423 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2428 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2429 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2430 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2436 None of the templates provides this layout exactly. The nearest is
2437 @q{SATB vocal score and automatic piano reduction} -- see
2438 @ref{Vocal ensembles} -- but we need to change the layout and add a piano
2439 accompaniment which is not derived automatically from the vocal parts.
2440 The variables holding the music and words for the vocal parts are
2441 fine, but we shall need to add variables for the piano reduction.
2443 The order in which the contexts appear in the ChoirStaff of the
2444 template do not correspond with the order in the vocal score shown
2445 above. We need to rearrange them so there are four staves with the
2446 words written directly underneath the notes for each part. All the
2447 voices should be @code{\voiceOne}, which is the default, so the
2448 @code{\voiceXXX} commands should be removed. We also need to specify
2449 the tenor clef for the tenors. The way in which lyrics are specified
2450 in the template has not yet been encountered so we need to use the
2451 method with which we are familiar. We should also add the names of
2454 Doing this gives for our ChoirStaff:
2458 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2459 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2460 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2465 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2468 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2469 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2470 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2475 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2478 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2479 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2480 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2485 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2488 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2489 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2490 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2495 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2501 Next we must work out the piano part. This is
2502 easy - we just pull out the piano part from the
2503 @q{Solo piano} template:
2507 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2508 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2509 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2513 and add the variable definitions for @code{upper}
2516 The ChoirStaff and PianoStaff must be combined
2517 using angle brackets as we want them to be
2518 stacked one above the other:
2521 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff one above the other
2523 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2524 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2529 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2532 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2533 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2538 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2541 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2542 \clef "G_8" % tenor clef
2543 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2548 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2551 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2553 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2558 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2564 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2565 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2566 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2571 Combining all these together and adding the music
2572 for the three bars of the example above gives:
2574 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2575 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2576 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' {
2578 r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2580 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2581 Wor -- thy | is the lamb | that was slain |
2583 altoMusic = \relative a' {
2585 r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis fis2 |
2587 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2588 tenorMusic = \relative c' {
2590 r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2592 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2593 bassMusic = \relative c' {
2595 r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2597 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2598 upper = \relative a' {
2601 r4 <a d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2602 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2603 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2605 lower = \relative c, {
2608 <d d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2609 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2610 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2614 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2616 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2617 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2618 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2623 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2626 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2627 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2628 \new Voice = "altos" {
2633 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" {
2636 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2637 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2638 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2643 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" {
2646 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2647 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2648 \new Voice = "basses" {
2653 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2659 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2660 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2661 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2668 @node Building a score from scratch
2669 @subsection Building a score from scratch
2671 @cindex template, writing your own
2672 @cindex example of writing a score
2673 @cindex writing a score, example
2674 @cindex score, example of writing
2676 After gaining some facility with writing LilyPond code, you
2677 may find that it is easier to build a score from scratch
2678 rather than modifying one of the templates. You can also
2679 develop your own style this way to suit the sort of music you
2680 like. Let's see how to put together the score for an organ
2681 prelude as an example.
2683 We begin with a header section. Here go the title, name
2684 of composer, etc, then come any variable definitions, and
2685 finally the score block. Let's start with these in outline
2686 and fill in the details later.
2688 We'll use the first two bars of Bach's prelude
2689 based on @emph{Jesu, meine Freude} which is written for two
2690 manuals and pedal organ. You can see these two bars of music
2691 at the bottom of this section. The top manual part has two voices,
2692 the lower and pedal organ one each. So we need four
2693 music definitions and one to define the time signature
2697 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2699 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2700 composer = "J S Bach"
2702 keyTime = @{ \key c \minor \time 4/4 @}
2703 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = @{ s1 @}
2704 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2705 ManualTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2706 PedalOrganMusic = @{ s1 @}
2712 For now we've just used a spacer note, @code{s1},
2713 instead of the real music. We'll add that later.
2715 Next let's see what should go in the score block.
2716 We simply mirror the staff structure we want.
2717 Organ music is usually written on three staves,
2718 one for each manual and one for the pedals. The
2719 manual staves should be bracketed together, so we
2720 need to use a PianoStaff for them. The first
2721 manual part needs two voices and the second manual
2726 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2728 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2731 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2733 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2734 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2738 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2739 >> % end PianoStaff context
2742 Next we need to add a staff for the pedal organ.
2743 This goes underneath the PianoStaff, but it must
2744 be simultaneous with it, so we need angle brackets
2745 around the two. Missing these out would generate
2746 an error in the log file. It's a common mistake
2747 which you'll make sooner or later! Try copying
2748 the final example at the end of this section,
2749 remove these angle brackets, and compile it to
2750 see what errors it generates.
2753 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2755 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2757 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2760 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2762 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2763 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2767 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2768 >> % end PianoStaff context
2769 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2777 It is not necessary to use the simultaneous construct
2778 @code{<< .. >>} for the manual two staff and the pedal organ staff,
2779 since they contain only one music expression, but it does no harm,
2780 and always using angle brackets after @code{\new Staff} is a good
2781 habit to cultivate in case there are multiple voices. The opposite
2782 is true for Voices: these should habitually be followed by braces
2783 @code{@{ .. @}} in case your music is coded in several variables
2784 which need to run consecutively.
2786 Let's add this structure to the score block, and adjust the indenting.
2787 We also add the appropriate clefs, ensure stems, ties and slurs in
2788 each voice on the upper staff point to the right direction with
2789 @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo}, and enter the key and time
2790 signature to each staff using our predefined variable, @code{\keyTime}.
2794 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2796 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2797 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2801 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2805 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2807 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2808 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2814 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2815 >> % end PianoStaff context
2816 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2822 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2824 @} % end Score context
2827 @cindex stretchability of staves
2828 @cindex staves, stretchability
2830 The above layout of the organ staves is almost perfect; however,
2831 there is a slight defect which is not visible by looking at just a
2832 single system: The distance of the pedal staff to the left hand staff
2833 should behave approximately the same as the right hand staff to the
2834 left hand staff. In particular, the stretchability of staves in a
2835 @code{PianoStaff} context is limited (so that the distance between
2836 the staves for the left and right hand can't become too large), and
2837 the pedal staff should behave similarly.
2839 @cindex sub-properties
2840 @cindex properties, sub-properties
2841 @cindex graphical objects
2842 @cindex objects, graphical
2845 Stretchability of staves can be controlled with the
2846 @code{staff-staff-spacing} property of the
2847 @code{VerticalAxisGroup} @q{graphical object} (commonly called
2848 @q{grob}s within the lilypond documentation) -- don't worry about
2849 the details right now; this is fully explained later. For the
2850 curious, have a look at @ruser{Overview of modifying properties}.
2851 In this case, we want to modify the @code{stretchability}
2852 sub-property only. Again, for the curious, you can find the
2853 default values for the staff-staff-spacing property
2854 in file @file{scm/define-grobs.scm} by looking up the definition
2855 of the @code{VerticalAxisGroup} grob. The value for
2856 @code{stretchability} is taken from the definition of the
2857 @code{PianoStaff} context (in file @file{ly/engraver-init.ly})
2858 so that the values are identical.
2862 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2864 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2865 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2869 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2873 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2875 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2876 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" \with @{
2877 \override VerticalAxisGroup
2878 #'staff-staff-spacing #'stretchability = 5
2885 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2886 >> % end PianoStaff context
2887 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2893 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2895 @} % end Score context
2897 That completes the structure. Any three-staff organ music
2898 will have a similar structure, although the number of voices
2899 may vary. All that remains now
2900 is to add the music, and combine all the parts together.
2902 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2904 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2905 composer = "J S Bach"
2907 keyTime = { \key c \minor \time 4/4 }
2908 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = \relative g' {
2912 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = \relative c' {
2913 ees16 d ees8~ ees16 f ees d c8 d~ d c~ |
2914 c8 c4 b8 c8. g16 c b c d |
2916 ManualTwoMusic = \relative c' {
2917 c16 b c8~ c16 b c g a8 g~ g16 g aes ees |
2918 f16 ees f d g aes g f ees d e8~ ees16 f ees d |
2920 PedalOrganMusic = \relative c {
2921 r8 c16 d ees d ees8~ ees16 a, b g c b c8 |
2922 r16 g ees f g f g8 c,2 |
2926 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2928 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2929 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2933 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2937 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2939 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2940 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" \with {
2941 \override VerticalAxisGroup
2942 #'staff-staff-spacing #'stretchability = 5
2949 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2950 >> % end PianoStaff context
2951 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2957 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff context
2959 } % end Score context
2966 @node Saving typing with variables and functions
2967 @subsection Saving typing with variables and functions
2972 By this point, you've seen this kind of thing:
2974 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2975 hornNotes = \relative c'' { c4 b dis c }
2984 You may even realize that this could be useful in minimalist music:
2986 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2987 fragmentA = \relative c'' { a4 a8. b16 }
2988 fragmentB = \relative c'' { a8. gis16 ees4 }
2990 violin = \new Staff {
2991 \fragmentA \fragmentA |
2992 \fragmentB \fragmentA |
3002 However, you can also use these variables (also known as
3003 macros, or user-defined commands) for tweaks:
3005 @c TODO Avoid padtext - not needed with skylining
3006 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3007 dolce = \markup { \italic \bold dolce }
3009 padText = { \once \override TextScript #'padding = #5.0 }
3011 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
3014 violin = \relative c'' {
3016 c4._\dolce b8 a8 g a b |
3018 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e' f g d |
3019 c,4.\fthenp b8 c4 c-. |
3027 \layout { ragged-right = ##t }
3031 These variables are obviously useful for saving
3032 typing. But they're worth considering even if you
3033 only use them once -- they reduce complexity. Let's
3034 look at the previous example without any
3035 variables. It's a lot harder to read, especially
3039 violin = \relative c'' @{
3041 c4._\markup @{ \italic \bold dolce @} b8 a8 g a b |
3042 \once \override TextScript #'padding = #5.0
3043 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e' f g d |
3045 \dynamic f \italic \small @{ 2nd @} \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
3052 @c TODO Replace the following with a better example -td
3053 @c Skylining handles this correctly without padText
3055 So far we've seen static substitution -- when LilyPond
3056 sees @code{\padText}, it replaces it with the stuff that
3057 we've defined it to be (ie the stuff to the right of
3060 LilyPond can handle non-static substitution, too (you
3061 can think of these as functions).
3063 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3065 #(define-music-function
3066 (parser location padding)
3069 \once \override TextScript #'padding = $padding
3073 c4^"piu mosso" b a b |
3075 c4^"piu mosso" d e f |
3077 c4^"piu mosso" fis a g |
3081 Using variables is also a good way to reduce work if the
3082 LilyPond input syntax changes (see
3083 @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}). If
3084 you have a single definition (such as @code{\dolce}) for all your
3085 input files (see @ref{Style sheets}), then if the syntax changes, you
3086 only need to update your single @code{\dolce} definition,
3087 instead of making changes throughout every @file{.ly} file.
3090 @node Scores and parts
3091 @subsection Scores and parts
3093 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
3094 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Variables can
3095 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
3096 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
3097 both the part and the full score.
3099 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
3100 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
3101 of a horn/@/bassoon duo
3104 hornNotes = \relative c @{
3106 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3111 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
3114 \include "horn-music.ly"
3117 instrument = "Horn in F"
3121 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
3128 \include "horn-music.ly"
3132 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
3133 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
3134 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
3135 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth upwards. Sounding
3136 @code{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the
3137 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
3138 in the following output
3140 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3141 \transpose f c' \relative c {
3143 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3147 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
3148 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
3149 rest. It is entered with a capital @code{R} followed by a duration
3150 (@code{1}@tie{}for a whole note, @code{2}@tie{}for a half note,
3151 etc.). By multiplying the
3152 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
3153 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
3159 When printing the part, multi-rests
3160 must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable
3163 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
3167 This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the
3168 @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and
3169 this option to the music above, leads to the following result
3171 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3172 \transpose f c' \relative c {
3174 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
3176 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3181 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
3182 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
3183 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
3186 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
3187 \include "horn-music.ly"
3190 \new Staff \hornNotes
3191 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
3198 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3204 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3209 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b4 bes |
3210 a8 e f4 | g4 d | gis4 f |