4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
17 @macro internalsref{NAME}
18 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
21 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
22 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
28 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
30 @macro internalsref{NAME}
37 @c .{Reference Manual}
39 @node Reference Manual
40 @chapter Reference Manual
43 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
46 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
47 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
48 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
49 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
51 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
52 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
53 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
54 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
77 * Skipping corrected music::
78 * Interpretation context::
88 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
89 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
90 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
91 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
92 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
93 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
95 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
96 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
97 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
99 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
101 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
102 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
103 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
104 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
105 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
106 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
110 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
113 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
116 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
117 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
118 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
119 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
120 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
121 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
122 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
125 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
126 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
127 design of the program.
129 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
135 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
136 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
137 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
138 @code{\paper} declarations.
149 * Defining pitch names::
150 * Easy Notation note heads ::
157 A note specification has the form
160 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
163 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
164 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
165 A reminder accidental
166 @cindex reminder accidental
168 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
169 cautionary accidental,
170 @cindex cautionary accidental
171 @cindex parenthesized accidental
172 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
173 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
175 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
176 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
179 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
187 @cindex Note specification
189 @cindex entering notes
191 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
193 @cindex @code{\pitch}
195 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
198 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
200 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
201 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
202 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
203 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
204 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
206 @cindex note names, Dutch
208 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
209 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
210 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
211 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
212 both forms are accepted.
214 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
215 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
216 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
217 the names they define are:
220 Note Names sharp flat
221 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
222 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
223 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
224 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
225 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
226 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
227 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
235 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
236 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
237 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
238 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
240 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
241 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
249 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
251 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
255 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
256 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
258 For polyphonic music, it can be convenient to specify the rest position
259 directly. You can do that by entering a note, with the keyword
260 @code{\rest} appended, e.g. Rest collisions will leave these rests alone.
262 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
272 @cindex Invisible rest
275 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
278 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
282 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
283 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
285 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
287 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
288 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
290 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
291 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
295 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
298 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
301 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
302 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
307 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
312 @subsection Durations
316 @cindex @code{\duration}
318 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
320 \duration @var{scmduration}
322 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
323 @ref{Duration} for more information.
326 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
327 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
328 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
332 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
334 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
340 \notes \relative c'' {
342 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
344 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
349 \remove "Clef_engraver"
350 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
351 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
352 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
358 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
359 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
360 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
361 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
362 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
364 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
365 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
369 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
370 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
371 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
375 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
381 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
382 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
383 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
395 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
396 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
397 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
398 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
401 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
402 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
405 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
406 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
408 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
409 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
410 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
413 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
414 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
415 exactly the same concept.
417 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
418 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
421 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
422 @internalsref{Voice} context.
426 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
427 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
428 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
430 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
431 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
432 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
440 @cindex @code{\times}
442 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
445 @cindex @code{\times}
447 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
450 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
451 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
452 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
453 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
454 their written length:
456 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
457 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
460 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
461 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
462 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
464 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
465 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
466 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
469 The format of the number is determined by the property
470 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
471 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
472 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
475 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
476 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
478 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
479 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
480 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
481 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
482 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
483 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
484 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
485 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
486 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
487 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
488 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
491 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
492 @cindex tuplet formatting
494 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
495 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
497 @c . {Defining pitch names}
498 @node Defining pitch names
499 @subsection Defining pitch names
501 @cindex defining pitch names
502 @cindex pitch names, defining
504 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
505 syntax is as follows.
507 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
508 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
510 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
511 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
514 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
515 specific examples on how to do this.
518 @node Easy Notation note heads
519 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
521 @cindex easy notation
524 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
525 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
526 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
528 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
529 \include "paper23.ly"
531 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
532 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
536 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
537 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
538 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
544 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
545 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
546 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
551 @section Staff notation
553 @cindex Staff notation
565 @subsection Key signature
570 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
573 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
576 @cindex @code{\minor}
577 @cindex @code{\major}
578 @cindex @code{\minor}
579 @cindex @code{\ionian}
580 @cindex @code{\locrian}
581 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
582 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
583 @cindex @code{\lydian}
584 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
585 @cindex @code{\dorian}
587 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
588 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
589 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
590 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
591 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
593 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
594 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
597 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
598 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
600 @cindex @code{keySignature}
607 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
615 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
616 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
617 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
618 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
622 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
624 Supported clef-names include
626 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
628 @item treble, violin, G, G2
637 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
652 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
653 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
654 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
660 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
669 @item clefs-vaticana_do
670 Editio Vaticana style do clef
671 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
672 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
673 @item clefs-medicaea_do
674 Editio Medicaea style do clef
675 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
676 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
677 @item clefs-mensural1_c
678 modern style mensural C clef
679 @item clefs-mensural2_c
680 historic style small mensural C clef
681 @item clefs-mensural3_c
682 historic style big mensural C clef
683 @item clefs-mensural1_f
684 historic style traditional mensural F clef
685 @item clefs-mensural2_f
686 historic style new mensural F clef
687 @item clefs-mensural_g
688 historic style mensural G clef
689 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
690 historic style hufnagel do clef
691 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
692 historic style hufnagel fa clef
693 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
694 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
695 @item clefs-percussion
696 modern style percussion clef
699 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
700 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
701 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
704 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
705 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
706 @cindex hufnagel clefs
709 @c . {Time signature}
711 @subsection Time signature
712 @cindex Time signature
716 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
719 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
721 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
723 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
724 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
725 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
728 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
729 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
732 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
733 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
735 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
737 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
739 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
741 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
743 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
747 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
748 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
750 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
752 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
759 @cindex partial measure
760 @cindex measure, partial
761 @cindex shorten measures
762 @cindex @code{\partial}
764 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
765 @code{\partial} command:
767 \partial @var{duration}
770 Internally, this is a shortcut for
773 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
777 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
778 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
781 @node Unmetered music
782 @subsection Unmetered music
784 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
785 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
786 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
788 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
790 \property Score.timing = ##f
792 \property Score.timing = ##t
796 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
803 @subsection Bar lines
807 @cindex measure lines
814 This is a shortcut for doing
816 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
818 The following bar types are available
820 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
833 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
837 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
839 @cindex repeatCommands
840 @cindex defaultBarType
842 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
843 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
844 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
845 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
847 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
848 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
849 @code{whichBar} settings.
851 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
858 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
859 typeset with LilyPond.
861 The easiest way to enter such fragments, is the Scheme function
862 @code{voicify-music}. It will split chords using the separator
863 @code{\\}, to make multiple voices. You can use it for small,
864 short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single chords:
866 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
867 \context Voice = VA \apply #voicify-music \relative c'' {
868 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ c, \\ f \\ d >
872 The function @code{voicify-music} instantiates @internalsref{Voice}
873 contexts, bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
875 To explicity typeset polyphonic music, instantiate a separate Voice
876 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
878 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
880 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
881 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
884 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
885 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
886 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
887 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
888 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
890 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
891 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
898 \context Voice=three {
899 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
901 \context Voice=four {
902 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
907 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
908 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
911 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
913 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
914 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
915 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
918 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
919 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
921 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
923 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
925 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
928 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
932 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
934 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
936 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
937 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
941 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
942 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision}
943 handles vertical shifting of rests.
951 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
952 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
953 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
954 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
959 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
960 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
961 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
962 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
966 @c . {Automatic beams}
967 @subsection Automatic beams
969 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
970 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
971 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
974 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
975 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
976 or at durations specified by the properties in
977 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
978 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
980 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
981 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
983 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
984 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
986 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
987 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
988 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
989 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
990 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
993 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
994 you can use the following:
996 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
997 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
999 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1000 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
1002 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1003 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1005 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1006 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1008 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1009 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1010 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1012 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1013 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1014 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1015 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1017 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1018 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1021 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1022 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1023 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1024 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1028 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1030 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1031 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1033 @cindex automatic beam generation
1035 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1037 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1038 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1039 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1043 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1044 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1045 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1046 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1047 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1048 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1049 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1052 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1053 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1054 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1057 @cindex Automatic beams
1058 @subsection Manual beams
1059 @cindex beams, manual
1063 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1064 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1065 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1066 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1067 after the last note:
1069 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1071 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1074 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1077 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1079 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1080 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1081 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1082 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1083 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1085 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1088 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1091 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1093 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1094 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1095 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1096 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1097 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1100 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1102 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1103 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1104 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1108 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1109 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1111 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1112 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1113 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1117 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1118 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1120 @node Expressive marks
1121 @section Expressive marks
1136 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1137 They are entered using parentheses:
1139 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1140 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1144 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1145 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1146 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1147 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1148 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1149 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1151 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1152 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1153 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1155 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1159 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1160 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1161 stems might look better:
1163 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1164 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1165 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1167 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1172 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1173 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1174 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1175 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1176 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1177 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1178 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1179 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1181 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1182 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1183 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1184 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1185 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1186 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1187 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1192 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1193 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1195 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1197 @node Phrasing slurs
1198 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1200 @cindex phrasing slurs
1201 @cindex phrasing marks
1203 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1204 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1207 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1208 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1211 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1212 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1213 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1216 @subsection Breath marks
1218 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1219 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1221 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1230 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1231 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1240 @cindex beats per minute
1241 @cindex metronome marking
1243 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1245 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1247 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1250 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1255 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1256 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1257 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1262 @subsection Text spanners
1263 @cindex Text spanners
1265 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1266 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1267 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1270 \spanrequest \start "text"
1271 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1273 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1274 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1275 style is set through grob properties.
1277 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1278 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1279 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1280 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1281 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1282 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1283 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1284 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1302 @subsection Articulations
1303 @cindex Articulations
1305 @cindex articulations
1309 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1310 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1311 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1312 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1313 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1314 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1315 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1321 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1322 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1323 \context Staff \notes {
1324 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1325 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1326 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1327 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1328 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1329 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1330 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1331 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1333 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1334 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1335 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1336 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1337 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1338 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1339 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1340 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1341 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1345 linewidth = 5.875\in
1351 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1352 @lilypond[singleline]
1354 \notes \context Voice {
1355 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1356 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1362 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1369 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1370 changes, some markup texts would be needed:
1371 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1372 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1377 @cindex @code{\script}
1382 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1383 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1384 accesses a script definition from the table:
1390 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1391 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1393 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1397 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1398 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1400 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1401 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1402 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1407 @subsection Text scripts
1408 @cindex Text scripts
1410 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1411 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1414 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1415 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1416 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1418 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1419 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1422 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1423 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1425 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1426 special symbols in text scripts.
1430 @subsection Grace notes
1439 @cindex @code{\grace}
1442 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1444 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1445 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1446 The syntax is as follows.
1448 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1451 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1454 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1456 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1458 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1460 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1465 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1466 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1467 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1471 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1472 run-time errors: @example
1473 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1475 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1476 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1477 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1478 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1479 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1490 @subsection Glissando
1493 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1495 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1496 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1498 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1504 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1511 @subsection Dynamics
1524 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1534 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1535 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1536 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1537 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1538 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1540 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1541 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1547 @cindex @code{\decr}
1548 @cindex @code{\rced}
1554 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1555 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1556 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1557 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1558 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1559 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1560 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1561 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1562 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1564 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1565 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1566 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1569 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1570 is an example how to do it:
1575 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1577 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1578 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1583 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1584 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1588 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1589 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1590 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1591 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1592 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1593 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1595 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1596 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1597 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1605 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1607 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1608 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1609 different variants of repeats.
1613 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1614 output, and entering repetitive music.
1617 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1618 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1621 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1622 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1623 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1629 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1635 * Manual repeat commands::
1637 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1642 @subsection Repeat syntax
1644 The syntax for repeats is
1647 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1650 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1651 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1653 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1655 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1657 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1659 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1660 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1662 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1663 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1666 With alternative endings:
1667 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1669 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1670 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1673 Folded repeats look like this:
1676 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1678 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1679 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1683 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1684 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1685 the specified number of repeats.
1687 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1691 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1692 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1697 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1699 @cindex expanding repeats
1701 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1706 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1707 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1708 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1709 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1710 are also not repeated.
1712 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1713 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1715 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1716 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1717 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1719 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1720 off explicitly, for example by doing
1722 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1724 in all but the top staff.
1726 @node Manual repeat commands
1727 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1729 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1731 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1732 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1740 @item (volta . @var{text})
1741 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1743 Stop a running volta bracket
1746 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1748 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1750 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1755 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1757 @node Tremolo repeats
1758 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1759 @cindex tremolo beams
1761 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1763 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1765 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1766 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1767 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1768 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1769 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1774 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1775 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1780 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1781 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1783 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1784 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1785 @cindex tremolo marks
1786 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1788 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1789 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1790 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1791 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1792 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1794 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1795 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1801 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1804 @node Measure repeats
1805 @subsection Measure repeats
1807 @cindex percent repeats
1808 @cindex measure repeats
1810 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1811 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1812 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1813 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1815 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1816 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1817 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1821 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1822 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1826 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1827 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1829 @node Rhythmic music
1830 @section Rhythmic music
1837 @node Rhythmic staves
1838 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1840 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1841 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1842 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1844 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1845 \context RhythmicStaff {
1847 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1854 @section Piano music
1856 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1857 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1858 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1859 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1860 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1861 other pianistic peculiarities.
1864 * Automatic staff changes::
1865 * Manual staff switches::
1868 * Voice follower lines::
1872 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1873 @node Automatic staff changes
1874 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1875 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1877 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1878 staff. The syntax for this is
1880 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1882 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1883 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1884 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1885 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1886 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1888 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1889 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1890 \context Staff = "up" {
1891 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1892 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1893 \context Staff = "down" {
1899 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1900 terminating too soon.
1903 @node Manual staff switches
1904 @subsection Manual staff switches
1906 @cindex manual staff switches
1907 @cindex staff switch, manual
1909 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1911 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1913 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1914 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1915 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1918 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1919 completeness we give it here.
1920 @cindex @code{\translator}
1922 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1924 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1925 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1926 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1927 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1935 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1936 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1937 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1939 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1940 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1942 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1943 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1944 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1947 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1948 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1949 types. Refer to the generated documentation of @rgrob{PianoPedal} for
1955 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (i.e. `*Ped'
1961 @subsection Arpeggio
1964 @cindex broken arpeggio
1965 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1967 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1968 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1971 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1972 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
1975 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1976 to the chords in both staves, and set
1977 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1979 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1980 \context PianoStaff <
1981 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1982 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1983 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1987 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
1988 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}. @internalsref{Arpeggio}
1990 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
1991 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
1992 @code{arpeggio-type}.
1994 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1996 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
1998 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2004 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2005 arpeggiate the chord.
2007 @lil ypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2008 \context PianoStaff <
2009 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2010 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #'bracket
2011 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2012 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2020 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
2025 @node Voice follower lines
2026 @subsection Voice follower lines
2028 @cindex follow voice
2029 @cindex staff switching
2032 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2034 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2035 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2036 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2038 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2039 \context PianoStaff <
2040 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2041 \context Staff \context Voice {
2043 \translator Staff=two
2046 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2050 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2060 * Automatic syllable durations::
2066 @subsection Lyrics mode
2069 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2070 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2074 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2076 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2077 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2078 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2079 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2081 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2082 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2083 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2086 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2087 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2088 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2091 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2094 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2095 @node Printing lyrics
2096 @subsection Printing lyrics
2099 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2101 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2102 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2103 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2105 \notes \relative c' {
2107 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2108 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2109 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2110 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2112 share the soft -- ware; }
2116 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2117 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2118 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2119 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2120 interpreted as melismata.
2122 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2125 @cindex lyric extender
2128 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2129 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2130 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2131 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2132 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2137 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2138 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2139 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2140 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2141 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2142 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2144 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2146 @node Automatic syllable durations
2147 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2148 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2150 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2151 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2153 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2154 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2157 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2160 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2161 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2162 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2164 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2166 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2167 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2170 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2173 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2174 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2176 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2180 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2181 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2182 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2184 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2186 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2187 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2189 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2190 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2193 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2194 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2195 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2197 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2200 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2202 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2207 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2208 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2211 @subsection More stanzas
2215 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2216 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2217 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2219 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2220 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2221 In the following example, the Voice
2222 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2223 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2226 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2229 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2231 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2232 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2233 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2234 Hi, my name is bert. }
2235 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2236 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2237 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2242 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2243 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2244 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2250 @cindex stanza numbering
2258 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2259 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2260 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2261 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2262 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2263 name, and print them as name.
2266 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2267 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2277 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2278 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2281 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2282 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2283 interpret this as an inversion.
2287 * Printing named chords::
2292 @subsection Chords mode
2295 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2296 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2297 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2298 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2300 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2301 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2303 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2305 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2308 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2309 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2310 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2311 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2312 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2313 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2314 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2315 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2317 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2318 using @code{\transpose}.
2320 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2324 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2334 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2335 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2336 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2337 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2338 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2339 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2340 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2342 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2345 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2351 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2352 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2355 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2364 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2365 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2366 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2367 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2369 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2379 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2380 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2381 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2382 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2384 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2395 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2396 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2399 @c . {Printing named chords}
2400 @node Printing named chords
2401 @subsection Printing named chords
2403 @cindex printing chord names
2407 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2408 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2409 directly using simultaneous music.
2411 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2413 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2417 \context ChordNames \scheme
2418 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2423 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2424 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2425 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2430 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2434 \context ChordNames {
2435 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2437 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2441 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2442 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2443 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2444 are entered as a list of pitches:
2446 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2455 \context ChordNames \scheme
2456 \context Staff \scheme
2462 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2463 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2464 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2465 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2466 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2468 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2469 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2470 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2474 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2475 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2485 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2486 \context ChordNames = american {
2487 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2488 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2489 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2490 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2491 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2492 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2499 @section Writing parts
2501 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2502 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2503 problems in orchestral music.
2510 * Instrument names::
2512 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2513 * Multi measure rests::
2514 * Automatic part combining::
2515 * Hara kiri staves::
2518 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2519 @node Rehearsal marks
2520 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2521 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2523 @cindex @code{\mark}
2527 \mark @var{unsigned}
2532 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2533 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2534 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2535 automatically incremented.
2537 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2543 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2548 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2549 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2552 @subsection Bar numbers
2556 @cindex measure numbers
2557 @cindex currentBarNumber
2559 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2560 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2561 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2563 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2566 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2567 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2571 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2574 @node Instrument names
2575 @subsection Instrument names
2577 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2578 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2579 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2580 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2582 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2583 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2586 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2590 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2592 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2595 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2596 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2604 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2605 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2606 the name to avoid a collision.
2609 @subsection Transpose
2611 @cindex transposition of pitches
2612 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2614 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2617 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2620 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2623 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2624 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2625 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2628 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2631 { \key e \major c d e f }
2633 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2634 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2638 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2639 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2640 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2642 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2643 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2645 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2647 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2648 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2649 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2651 @cindex @code{transposing}
2654 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2655 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2658 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2659 @node Multi measure rests
2660 @subsection Multi measure rests
2661 @cindex Multi measure rests
2665 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2666 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2668 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2669 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2670 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2673 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2674 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2677 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2680 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2682 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2686 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2687 a single multimeasure rest.
2689 @cindex condensing rests
2691 @node Automatic part combining
2692 @subsection Automatic part combining
2693 @cindex automatic part combining
2694 @cindex part combiner
2697 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2698 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2699 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2700 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2701 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2702 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2704 The syntax for part combining is
2707 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2709 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2710 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2711 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2714 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2715 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2717 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2719 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2720 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2723 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2729 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2730 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2731 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2732 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2733 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2736 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2737 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2739 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2741 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2742 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2743 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2746 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2752 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2753 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2754 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2755 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2756 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2757 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2761 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2762 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2765 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2767 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2768 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2771 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2777 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2778 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2779 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2781 @node Hara kiri staves
2782 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2784 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2785 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2786 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2787 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2788 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2789 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2792 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2793 context. It is available as the context identifier
2794 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2795 example disappears in the second line.
2799 \notes \relative c' <
2800 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2801 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2805 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2818 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2819 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2820 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2821 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2822 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2827 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2832 \consists Custos_engraver
2838 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2839 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2840 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2841 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2844 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2845 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2846 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2847 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2848 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2855 \consists Custos_engraver
2856 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2861 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2866 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2867 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2874 @section Figured bass
2876 @cindex Basso continuo
2878 TODO. see figured-bass.ly
2880 @c . {Tuning output}
2882 @section Tuning output
2884 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2885 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2886 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2887 ways to do just that.
2889 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2890 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2891 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2892 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2894 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2895 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2896 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2897 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2898 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2901 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2902 * Tuning per grob ::
2910 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2911 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2913 @cindex grob description
2917 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2918 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2919 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2921 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2922 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2925 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2926 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2927 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2928 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2932 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2939 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2940 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2943 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2944 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2945 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2950 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2951 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2955 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2956 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2958 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2959 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2962 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2963 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2964 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2965 result as the previous one.
2967 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2968 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
2971 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
2974 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2976 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2977 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2978 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2980 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2981 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2984 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2985 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2986 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
2987 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
2988 must be carefully balanced.
2990 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
2993 A clumsy but correct form:
2995 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
2998 Shorter version of the same:
3000 \override \set \set \revert
3003 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3006 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3009 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3012 \set \set \set \revert
3015 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3016 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3017 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3018 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3019 automatic beaming settings.
3023 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3024 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3025 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3028 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
3029 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
3030 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
3031 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
3032 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
3033 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
3034 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
3035 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3040 @node Tuning per grob
3041 @subsection Tuning per grob
3043 @cindex \outputproperty
3045 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3046 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3048 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3050 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3051 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3052 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3053 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3054 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3056 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3057 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3059 Here are some random examples.
3062 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3063 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3066 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3068 \context Staff \outputproperty
3069 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3070 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3074 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3076 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3077 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3078 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3079 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3080 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3083 \notes\relative c''' {
3084 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3085 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3086 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3094 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3095 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3101 @subsection What to tune?
3103 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3104 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3105 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3107 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3108 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3109 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3110 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3111 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3112 where you got this manual.
3114 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3117 which grob to modify
3119 which property to modify
3121 which context the grob comes from.
3124 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3125 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3126 properties available for that grob.
3128 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3129 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3132 @node Font selection
3133 @subsection Font selection
3135 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3136 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3137 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3138 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3139 characterized by its font name.
3141 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3142 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3143 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3148 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3149 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3150 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3151 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3154 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3155 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3156 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3159 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3160 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3163 @item font-relative-size
3164 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3165 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3166 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3168 @item font-design-size
3169 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3171 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3172 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3173 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3174 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3177 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3178 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3185 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3186 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3187 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3188 any value for that qualifier.
3191 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3192 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3195 @cindex @code{font-style}
3197 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3198 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3199 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3200 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3201 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3204 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3205 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3208 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3209 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3210 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3211 which have special encodings.
3213 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3214 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3215 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3219 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3221 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3224 @cindex font selection
3225 @cindex font magnification
3226 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3230 @subsection Text markup
3234 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3235 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3236 in the following way.
3238 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3243 c^#'(italic "italic")
3244 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3246 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3247 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3251 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3252 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3255 text: string | (head? text+)
3256 head: markup | (markup+)
3257 markup-item: property | abbrev
3258 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3259 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3260 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3261 @code{large Large dynamic}
3264 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3265 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3266 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3267 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3269 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3272 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3274 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3278 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3279 and uses named lookup
3286 lookup by character name
3288 plain text lookup (by character value)
3294 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3296 select fingering number fontstyle
3298 select volta number fontstyle
3300 select time signature number fontstyle
3302 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3304 select mark number fontstyle
3306 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3308 select large roman fontstyle
3310 select Large roman fontstyle
3312 select dynamics fontstyle
3316 @cindex metronome mark
3318 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3322 #(define note '(columns
3323 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3324 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3325 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3326 #(define dotted-eight-note
3327 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3330 \notes\relative c'' {
3331 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3337 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3343 @node Invisible grobs
3344 @subsection Invisible grobs
3345 @cindex invisible grobs
3349 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3355 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3356 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3357 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3358 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3360 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3362 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3363 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3365 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3367 \property Voice.Stem \override
3368 #'transparent = ##t }
3371 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3372 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3375 \notes\relative c'' {
3377 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3381 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3382 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3386 \notes\relative c'' {
3389 as bes c bes c d \break
3390 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3393 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3397 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3398 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3400 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3401 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3402 \paper { \translator {
3404 \remove Stem_engraver
3410 @subsection Dirty tricks
3411 @cindex embedded tex
3413 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3414 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3415 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3416 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3419 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3420 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3423 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3424 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3425 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3426 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3431 \notes \relative c'' {
3432 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3433 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3434 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3438 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3445 @section Page layout
3448 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3449 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3450 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3464 @subsection Paper block
3467 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3468 music notation. The syntax is
3471 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3474 where each of the items is one of
3477 @item An assignment.
3479 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3480 more information on context definitions.
3482 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3484 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3487 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3488 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3490 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3492 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3493 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3497 @c . {Paper variables}
3498 @node Paper variables
3499 @subsection Paper variables
3500 @cindex Paper variables
3502 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3505 @cindex @code{indent}
3507 The indentation of the first line of music.
3508 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3510 @item @code{staffspace}
3511 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3514 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3515 @item @code{linewidth}
3516 Sets the width of the lines.
3518 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3519 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3520 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3521 produces a single line.
3523 @cindex @code{textheight}
3525 @item @code{textheight}
3526 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3529 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3531 @item @code{interscoreline}
3532 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3534 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3536 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3537 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3538 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3539 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3544 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3546 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3547 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3548 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3551 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3552 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3554 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3561 @subsection Font size
3564 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3565 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3566 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3567 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3569 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3570 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3571 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3572 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3573 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3574 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3576 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3577 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3583 @subsection Paper size
3588 @cindex @code{papersize}
3590 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3591 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3592 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3593 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3594 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3597 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3598 \include "paper16.ly"
3601 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3602 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3603 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3607 @subsection Line break
3610 @cindex breaking lines
3612 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3613 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
3616 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3617 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3618 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3619 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3620 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3621 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3623 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3625 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3626 the penalty command:
3631 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3636 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3637 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3641 @subsection Page break
3644 @cindex breaking pages
3646 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3647 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3648 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3649 the command @code{\newpage}
3650 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3656 @c why do so difficult?
3657 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3658 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3660 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3663 @c . {Output scaling}
3664 @node Output scaling
3665 @subsection Output scaling
3680 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3681 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3685 @c . {Output formats}
3686 @node Output formats
3687 @section Output formats
3689 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3693 * PostScript output::
3695 * ASCIIScript output::
3699 @subsection TeX output
3702 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3703 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3704 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3705 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3706 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3707 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3711 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3714 @node PostScript output
3715 @subsection PostScript output
3716 @cindex PostScript output
3717 @cindex direct PostScript output
3719 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3720 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3721 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3724 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3725 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3726 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3728 Interpreting music...[3]
3729 Preprocessing elements...
3730 Calculating column positions...
3731 paper output to foo.ps...
3733 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3739 Text font selection is broken.
3741 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3742 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3743 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3744 printer before printing.
3746 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3747 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3752 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3758 @subsection Scheme output
3759 @cindex Scheme output
3761 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3762 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3763 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3764 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3765 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3769 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3770 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3771 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3773 Interpreting music...[3]
3774 Preprocessing elements...
3775 Calculating column positions...
3776 paper output to foo.scm...
3779 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3780 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3784 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3788 @node ASCIIScript output
3789 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3790 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3791 @cindex ascii script
3794 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3795 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3796 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3797 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3798 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3801 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3802 file in your .ly, one of:
3804 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3805 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3808 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3809 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3810 symbol has been made invisible:
3813 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3814 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3815 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3817 Interpreting music...[3]
3818 Preprocessing elements...
3819 Calculating column positions... [2]
3820 paper output to as-email.as...
3822 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3824 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3825 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3826 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3827 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3837 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3838 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3839 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3841 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3843 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3844 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3845 dropped in future versions.
3852 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3853 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3854 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3855 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3857 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3858 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3859 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3860 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3861 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3862 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3864 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3865 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3866 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3867 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3868 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3870 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3875 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3876 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3880 * MIDI instrument names::
3885 @subsection MIDI block
3889 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3890 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3894 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3895 @item context definitions
3898 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3902 @cindex context definition
3904 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3905 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3906 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3909 @node MIDI instrument names
3910 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3912 @cindex instrument names
3913 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3914 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3916 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3917 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3918 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3919 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3923 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3924 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3934 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3937 @section Music entry
3945 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3946 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3947 find and correct mistakes.
3951 @subsection Relative
3953 @cindex relative octave specification
3955 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3956 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3957 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3958 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3960 @cindex @code{\relative}
3962 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3965 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3966 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3967 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
3968 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
3969 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3972 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
3973 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
3974 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
3975 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3977 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3978 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3984 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3985 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3987 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
3990 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
3991 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
3992 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
3995 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4002 @cindex @code{\notes}
4004 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
4005 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
4006 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
4009 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
4010 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
4011 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
4012 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
4017 @subsection Bar check
4021 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
4025 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
4026 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
4027 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
4028 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
4029 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
4031 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
4033 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
4038 @cindex skipTypesetting
4040 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4041 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4042 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4043 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4044 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4045 corrected music})). Bar
4048 @c . {Point and click}
4049 @node Point and click
4050 @subsection Point and click
4052 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4053 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4054 error in the sheet music.
4056 To use it, you need the following software
4058 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4062 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4063 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4065 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4066 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4067 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4071 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4072 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4075 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4077 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4078 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4079 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4082 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4085 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4090 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4093 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4095 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4096 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4097 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4099 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4100 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4104 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4106 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4107 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4108 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4109 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4110 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4111 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4112 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4113 init file, before invoking server-start.
4116 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4119 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4121 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4124 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4127 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4128 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4129 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4134 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4135 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4136 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4138 @node Skipping corrected music
4139 @section Skipping corrected music
4141 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4142 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4143 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4144 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4147 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4148 \relative c'' { c8 d
4149 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4151 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4156 @node Interpretation context
4157 @section Interpretation context
4160 * Creating contexts::
4161 * Default contexts::
4162 * Context properties::
4163 * Engravers and performers::
4164 * Changing context definitions::
4165 * Defining new contexts::
4169 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4170 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4171 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4172 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4175 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4176 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4180 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4181 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4182 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4186 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4187 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4188 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4189 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4191 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4192 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4193 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4194 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4195 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4198 @node Creating contexts
4199 @subsection Creating contexts
4201 @cindex @code{\context}
4202 @cindex context selection
4204 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4205 following music expression.
4208 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4211 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4212 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4213 context does not exist, it will be created.
4215 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4217 \notes \relative c'' {
4218 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4224 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4225 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4226 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4227 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4228 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4229 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4230 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4234 @node Default contexts
4235 @subsection Default contexts
4237 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4238 declaration: they inherit the
4239 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4240 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4241 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4243 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4244 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4247 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4250 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4251 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4254 \context Score @var{music}
4258 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4259 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4261 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4262 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4265 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4266 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4267 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4268 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4269 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4270 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4272 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4273 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4276 @cindex explicit context
4277 @cindex starting with chords
4278 @cindex chords, starting with
4280 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4281 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4284 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4285 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4287 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4288 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4293 @node Context properties
4294 @subsection Context properties
4296 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4297 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4298 @cindex @code{\property}
4300 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4303 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4304 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4305 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4307 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4308 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4309 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4310 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4312 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4314 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4317 @cindex properties, unsetting
4318 @cindex @code{\unset}
4320 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4321 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4322 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4327 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4328 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4330 @node Engravers and performers
4331 @subsection Engravers and performers
4335 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4336 special C++ classes.
4340 @c . {Context definitions}
4341 @node Changing context definitions
4342 @subsection Changing context definitions
4344 @cindex context definition
4345 @cindex translator definition
4347 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4348 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4349 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4353 @var{context-identifier}
4356 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4358 \remove @var{engravername}
4359 \consists @var{engravername}
4363 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4367 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4371 \translator { \StaffContext
4372 \remove Clef_engraver
4378 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4381 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4382 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4383 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4384 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4386 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4387 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4388 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4389 command will override any predefined settings.
4392 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4393 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4394 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4396 @node Defining new contexts
4397 @subsection Defining new contexts
4399 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4400 following extra information:
4402 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4404 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4411 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4414 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4415 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4416 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4420 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4421 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4422 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4423 for this engraver are the following:
4425 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4426 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4427 The standard cooperation engraver.
4429 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4431 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4432 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4433 and only the top level context.
4435 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4437 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4438 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4439 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4446 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4447 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4448 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4450 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4451 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4452 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4455 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4456 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4457 End-users generally don't need this command.
4459 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4460 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4461 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4462 context to create by default.
4464 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4465 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4468 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4469 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4470 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4474 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4475 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4476 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4477 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4482 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4489 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4497 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4504 @c . {Syntactic details}
4505 @node Syntactic details
4506 @section Syntactic details
4507 @cindex Syntactic details
4509 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4514 * Music expressions::
4515 * Manipulating music expressions::
4523 @subsection Top level
4526 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4530 @subsubsection Score
4533 @cindex score definition
4535 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4536 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4539 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4542 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4543 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4547 @c . {Default output}
4548 @subsubsection Default output
4550 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4551 entering such a block at the top level.
4554 @subsubsection Header
4556 @cindex @code{\header}
4559 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4560 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4561 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4562 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4563 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4565 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4569 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4570 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4573 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4575 @subsubsection Default output
4577 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4578 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4582 @subsection Identifiers
4586 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4587 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4593 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4594 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4595 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4596 specialized data types,
4603 @item Translator_def
4607 @item Music_output_def
4608 @item Moment (rational number)
4611 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4612 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4613 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4614 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4615 during a lilypond run.
4618 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4619 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4620 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4622 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4623 not yet user accessible.
4624 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4629 @node Music expressions
4630 @subsection Music expressions
4632 @cindex music expressions
4634 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4635 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4636 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4637 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4638 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4639 quarter note @code{d}:
4642 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4645 @cindex Sequential music
4646 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4647 @cindex sequential music
4650 @cindex Simultaneous music
4651 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4653 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4657 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4658 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4660 For both, there is a shorthand:
4662 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4666 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4668 for simultaneous music.
4669 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4670 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4671 are expressed in two different ways:
4673 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4674 \notes \context Voice {
4675 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4676 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4681 Other compound music expressions include
4684 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4685 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4686 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4687 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4691 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4692 @node Manipulating music expressions
4693 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4695 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4696 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4697 directly on it. The syntax is
4699 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4701 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4702 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4704 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4705 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4706 about how music is stored.
4708 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4709 #(define (testfunc x)
4710 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4711 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4713 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4714 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4719 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4723 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4724 generated documentation.
4727 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4728 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4731 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4733 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4734 #(define (reverse-music music)
4735 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4736 (reversed (reverse elements))
4737 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4738 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4740 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4741 (map reverse-music reversed)
4744 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4746 \score { \context Voice {
4748 \apply #reverse-music \music
4753 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4756 @c . {Span requests}
4762 @subsubsection Span requests
4763 @cindex Span requests
4765 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4766 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4770 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4774 @cindex @code{\start}
4775 @cindex @code{\stop}
4777 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4778 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4779 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4780 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4782 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4783 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4784 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4787 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4788 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4789 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4790 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4795 @subsection Assignments
4798 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4799 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4800 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4801 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4802 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4803 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4805 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4806 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4807 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4808 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4810 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4811 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4812 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4818 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4819 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4820 first item in a block.
4824 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4828 \paperIdent % correct
4833 @c . {Lexical modes}
4835 @subsection Lexical modes
4836 @cindex Lexical modes
4839 @cindex @code{\notes}
4840 @cindex @code{\chords}
4841 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4843 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4844 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4845 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4846 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4847 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4848 major triad respectively.
4850 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4852 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4853 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4854 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4857 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4858 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4859 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4860 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4862 Different input modes may be nested.
4866 @subsection Ambiguities
4871 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4875 @item The assignment
4880 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4881 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4882 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4883 containing the syllable `bar'.
4885 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4897 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4898 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4899 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4901 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4903 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4910 @c . {Lexical details}
4911 @node Lexical details
4912 @section Lexical details
4914 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4925 * Version information::
4930 @subsection Comments
4933 @cindex block comment
4934 @cindex line comment
4938 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4939 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4940 They cannot be nested.
4943 @subsection Direct Scheme
4947 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4950 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4951 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4952 wherever it is allowed,
4956 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
4958 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
4960 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
4961 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
4962 an integer (namely, 3).
4964 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
4967 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
4968 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
4969 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
4974 @subsection Keywords
4978 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
4979 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
4982 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
4983 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
4984 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
4985 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
4986 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
4987 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
4988 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
4989 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
4990 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
4995 @subsection Integers
5003 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
5004 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
5009 @cindex real numbers
5015 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
5016 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
5017 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
5018 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
5019 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
5027 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
5028 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
5029 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
5030 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
5038 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5039 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5040 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5041 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5042 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5046 @subsection Main input
5049 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5051 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5052 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5054 @node File inclusion
5055 @subsection File inclusion
5056 @cindex @code{\include}
5058 \include @var{filename}
5061 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5062 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5063 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5066 @node Version information
5067 @subsection Version information
5068 @cindex @code{\version}
5070 \version @var{string}
5073 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5074 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5075 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5076 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5077 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5086 @c .{Local emacs vars}
5089 @c minor-mode: font-lock
5090 @c minor-mode: outline
5091 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
5092 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5093 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
5094 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
5095 @c outline-override-protect: t