4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @nodes
5 @c Run M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus
7 @c before saving changes
18 @c .{Reference Manual}
20 @node Reference Manual
21 @chapter Reference Manual
23 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
24 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
25 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
26 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
28 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
29 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
30 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
31 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
53 * Skipping corrected music::
54 * Interpretation context::
64 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
65 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
66 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
67 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
68 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
69 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
71 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
72 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
73 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
75 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
77 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
78 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
79 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
80 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
81 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
82 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
86 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
89 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
92 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
93 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
94 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
95 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
96 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
97 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
98 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
101 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
102 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
103 design of the program.
110 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
111 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
112 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
113 @code{\paper} declarations.
124 * Defining pitch names::
125 * Easy Notation note heads ::
132 A note specification has the form
135 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
138 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
139 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
140 A reminder accidental
141 @cindex reminder accidental
143 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
144 cautionary accidental,
145 @cindex cautionary accidental
146 @cindex parenthesized accidental
147 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
148 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
150 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
151 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
160 @cindex Note specification
162 @cindex entering notes
164 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
166 @cindex @code{\pitch}
168 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
171 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
173 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
174 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
175 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
176 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
177 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
179 @cindex note names, Dutch
181 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
182 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
183 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
184 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
185 both forms are accepted.
187 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
188 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
189 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
190 the names they define are:
193 Note Names sharp flat
194 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
195 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
196 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
197 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
198 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
199 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
200 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
208 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
209 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
210 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
211 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
213 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
214 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
222 Rests are entered like notes, with note name `@code{r}'. The grob is
223 @code{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are specified using
224 @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
239 Skips the amount of time specified by @var{duration}. If no other music
240 is played, a gap will be left for the skipped time without any notes
241 printed. The shorthand is only available in Note and Chord mode.
245 @subsection Durations
249 @cindex @code{\duration}
251 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
253 \duration @var{scmduration}
255 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
256 @ref{Duration} for more information.
259 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
260 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
261 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
265 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
267 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
273 \notes \relative c'' {
275 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
277 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
282 \remove "Clef_engraver"
283 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
284 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
285 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
291 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
292 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
293 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
294 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
295 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
297 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
298 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
302 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
303 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
304 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
308 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
314 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
315 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
316 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
328 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
329 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
330 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
331 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
334 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
335 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
338 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
339 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
341 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
342 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
343 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
346 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
347 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
348 exactly the same concept.
350 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
351 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
354 The name of the tie grob is @code{Voice.Tie}.
358 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
359 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
360 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
362 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
363 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
364 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
372 @cindex @code{\times}
374 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
377 @cindex @code{\times}
379 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
382 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
383 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
384 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
385 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
386 their written length:
388 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
389 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
392 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
393 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
394 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
396 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
397 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
398 \times 2/3 { c''8 c c c c c }
401 The format of the number is determined by the property
402 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
403 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
404 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
407 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
408 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
410 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
411 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
412 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
413 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
414 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
415 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
416 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
417 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
418 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
419 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
420 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
423 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
424 @cindex tuplet formatting
426 Tuplet brackets are printed as @code{TupletBracket} grobs
428 @c . {Defining pitch names}
429 @node Defining pitch names
430 @subsection Defining pitch names
432 @cindex defining pitch names
433 @cindex pitch names, defining
435 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
436 syntax is as follows.
438 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
439 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
441 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
442 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
445 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
446 specific examples on how to do this.
449 @node Easy Notation note heads
450 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
452 @cindex easy notation
455 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
456 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
457 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
459 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
460 \include "paper23.ly"
462 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
463 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
467 Note that @code{EasyNotation} overrides a @code{Score} context. You
468 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
469 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
475 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
476 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
477 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
482 @section Staff notation
484 @cindex Staff notation
496 @subsection Key signature
501 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
504 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
507 @cindex @code{\minor}
508 @cindex @code{\major}
509 @cindex @code{\minor}
510 @cindex @code{\ionian}
511 @cindex @code{\locrian}
512 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
513 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
514 @cindex @code{\lydian}
515 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
516 @cindex @code{\dorian}
518 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
519 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
520 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
521 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
522 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
524 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
525 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
526 directly, see the generated documentation for @rgrob{KeySignature}.
528 The printed signature is a @code{KeySignature} grob.
530 @cindex @code{keySignature}
537 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
545 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
546 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
547 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
550 Any change in these properties creates a clef (a @code{Clef} grob).
552 Supported clef-names include
554 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
556 @item treble, violin, G, G2
565 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
580 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
581 transposed one octave down or up, respectively.
583 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
592 @item clefs-vaticana_do
593 Editio Vaticana style do clef
594 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
595 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
596 @item clefs-medicaea_do
597 Editio Medicaea style do clef
598 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
599 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
600 @item clefs-mensural1_c
601 modern style mensural C clef
602 @item clefs-mensural2_c
603 historic style small mensural C clef
604 @item clefs-mensural3_c
605 historic style big mensural C clef
606 @item clefs-mensural1_f
607 historic style traditional mensural F clef
608 @item clefs-mensural2_f
609 historic style new mensural F clef
610 @item clefs-mensural_g
611 historic style mensural G clef
612 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
613 historic style hufnagel do clef
614 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
615 historic style hufnagel fa clef
616 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
617 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
618 @item clefs-percussion
619 modern style percussion clef
622 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
623 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
624 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
627 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
628 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
629 @cindex hufnagel clefs
632 @c . {Time signature}
634 @subsection Time signature
635 @cindex Time signature
639 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
642 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
644 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
646 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
647 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
648 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
651 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
652 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
655 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
656 fraction to be printed. This grob is @code{TimeSignature}.
658 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
660 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
662 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
664 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
666 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
670 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
671 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
673 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
675 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
682 @cindex partial measure
683 @cindex measure, partial
684 @cindex shorten measures
685 @cindex @code{\partial}
687 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
688 @code{\partial} command:
690 \partial @var{duration}
693 Internally, this is a shortcut for
696 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
700 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
701 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
704 @node Unmetered music
705 @subsection Unmetered music
707 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
708 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
709 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
711 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
713 \property Score.timing = ##f
715 \property Score.timing = ##t
719 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
726 @subsection Bar lines
730 @cindex measure lines
737 This is a shortcut for doing
739 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
741 The following bar types are available
743 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
756 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
760 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
762 @cindex repeatCommands
763 @cindex defaultBarType
765 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
766 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
767 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
768 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
770 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
771 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
772 @code{whichBar} settings.
774 @code{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
781 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
782 typeset with LilyPond. To use this, instantiate a separate Voice
783 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
784 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
786 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
787 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
790 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
791 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
792 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
793 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
794 in @code{NoteColumn}).
796 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
797 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
804 \context Voice=three {
805 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
807 \context Voice=four {
808 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
813 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
814 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
817 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
819 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
820 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
821 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
824 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
825 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
827 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
829 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
831 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
834 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
838 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
840 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
842 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
843 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
847 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
848 the @code{NoteCollision} grob. @code{RestCollision} handles vertical
851 @cindex @code{NoteCollision}
852 @cindex @code{RestCollision}
857 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
858 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
859 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
860 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
865 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
866 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
867 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
868 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
872 @c . {Automatic beams}
873 @subsection Automatic beams
875 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
876 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
877 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
880 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
881 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
882 or at durations specified by the properties in
883 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
884 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
886 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
887 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
889 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{N} @var{M} @var{P} @var{Q}) = @var{dur}
890 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{N} @var{M} @var{P} @var{Q})
892 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
893 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
894 @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may
895 be entered to designate all time signatures), @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to
896 the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{* *}' designates notes of any
899 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
900 you can use the following:
902 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
903 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
905 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
906 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
908 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
909 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
911 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
912 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
914 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
915 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
916 3/8 has passed within the measure).
918 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
919 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
920 replacing the first asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
921 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
923 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
924 #'(begin 6 8 * *) = ...
927 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
928 second pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
929 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
930 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end * * 1
934 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
936 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
937 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
939 @cindex automatic beam generation
941 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
943 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
944 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
945 a melody that goes with lyrics.
949 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
950 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
951 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
952 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
953 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
954 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
955 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
958 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
959 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
960 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
963 @cindex Automatic beams
964 @subsection Manual beams
965 @cindex beams, manual
969 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
970 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
971 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
972 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
975 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
977 r4 [r8 g'' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
980 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
983 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
985 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
986 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
987 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
988 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
989 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
991 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
994 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
997 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
999 The beam symbol (grob @code{Voice.Beam}, both for automatic and manual
1000 beams) can be tweaked through grob-properties @code{height} and
1001 @code{staff-position}. These specify vertical location and vertical
1002 span. Both are measured in half staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0}
1003 corresponds to the middle staff line.
1006 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1008 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1009 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1010 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1014 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1015 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1017 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1018 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1019 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1022 @cindex @code{default-neutral-direction}
1024 @node Expressive marks
1025 @section Expressive marks
1040 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1041 They are entered using parentheses:
1043 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1044 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1048 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1049 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1050 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1051 @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{attachment}. It's value is a
1052 pair of symbols, specifying the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1054 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1055 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1056 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1058 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1062 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1063 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1064 stems might look better:
1066 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1067 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1068 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1070 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1075 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1076 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1077 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1078 is in @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1079 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1080 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1081 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1082 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1084 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1085 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1086 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1087 c'16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1088 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1089 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1090 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1095 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1096 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1098 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1100 @node Phrasing slurs
1101 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1103 @cindex phrasing slurs
1104 @cindex phrasing marks
1106 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1107 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1110 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1111 \time 6/4 c'' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1114 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1115 slur. The grob associated with it is @code{Voice.PhrasingSlur}.
1118 @subsection Breath marks
1120 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1121 @code{Voice.BreathingSign} grob.
1123 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1132 Currently, only tick marks are supported, not comma style breath marks.
1139 @cindex beats per minute
1140 @cindex metronome marking
1142 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1144 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1146 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1149 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1154 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1155 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1156 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1161 @subsection Text spanners
1162 @cindex Text spanners
1164 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1165 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1166 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1169 \spanrequest \start "text"
1170 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1172 LilyPond will respond by creating a @code{Voice.TextSpanner} grob. The
1173 string to be printed, as well as the style is set through grob
1176 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1177 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1178 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1179 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1180 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1181 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1182 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1183 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1201 @subsection Articulations
1202 @cindex Articulations
1204 @cindex articulations
1208 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1209 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1210 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1211 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1212 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1213 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1214 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1220 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1221 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1222 \context Staff \notes {
1223 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1224 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1225 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1226 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1227 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1228 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1229 c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1231 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1232 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1233 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1234 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1235 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1236 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1237 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1238 thumb__ segno__ coda
1242 linewidth = 5.875\in
1248 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1249 @lilypond[singleline]
1251 \notes \context Voice {
1252 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1253 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1259 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1266 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand.
1267 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1268 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1272 @cindex @code{\script}
1277 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1278 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1279 accesses a script definition from the table:
1285 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1286 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1288 Grobs for these objects are @code{Script} and @code{Fingering}.
1292 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1293 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1295 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1296 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1297 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1302 @subsection Text scripts
1303 @cindex Text scripts
1305 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1306 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1309 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1310 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1311 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1313 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1314 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1317 Text scripts are created in form of @code{Voice.TextScript} grobs.
1319 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1320 special symbols in text scripts.
1324 @subsection Grace notes
1333 @cindex @code{\grace}
1336 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1338 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1339 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1340 The syntax is as follows.
1342 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1345 When grace music is interpreted, a score-within-a-score is set up:
1346 @var{musicexpr} has its own time bookkeeping, and you could (for
1347 example) have a separate time signature within the grace notes. While in
1348 this score-within-a-score, you can create notes, beams, slurs, etc.
1349 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1352 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1354 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1355 \grace { \property Grace.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'() c16 } c4
1360 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1361 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1362 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1366 At present, slurs or ties from the grace notes to the following notes
1367 are not supported. Also, nesting @code{\grace} notes is not
1368 supported. The following may cause run-time errors:
1370 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1372 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1373 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1374 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1375 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1376 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1378 The present implementation of grace notes is not robust and generally
1379 kludgey. We expect it to change after LilyPond 1.4. Syntax changes might
1380 also be implemented.
1391 @subsection Glissando
1394 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1396 A glissando line (grob @code{Voice.Glissando}) can be requested by attaching a
1397 @code{\glissando} to a note:
1399 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1405 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1412 @subsection Dynamics
1425 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1435 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1436 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1437 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1438 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1439 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1441 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1442 c''\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1448 @cindex @code{\decr}
1449 @cindex @code{\rced}
1455 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1456 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1457 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1458 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1459 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1460 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1461 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1462 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1463 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1465 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1466 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1467 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1470 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1471 is an example how to do it:
1476 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1478 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1479 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1484 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1485 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1489 Dynamics are grobs of @code{Voice.DynamicText} and
1490 @code{Voice.Hairpin}. They are put together on
1491 @code{Voice.DynamicLineSpanner} to align them vertically.
1500 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1502 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1503 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1504 different variants of repeats.
1508 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1509 output, and entering repetitive music.
1512 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1513 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1516 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1517 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1518 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1524 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1530 * Manual repeat commands::
1532 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1537 @subsection Repeat syntax
1539 The syntax for repeats is
1542 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1545 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1546 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1548 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1550 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1552 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1554 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1555 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1557 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1558 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1561 With alternative endings:
1562 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1564 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1565 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1568 Folded repeats look like this:
1571 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1573 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1574 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1578 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1579 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1580 the specified number of repeats.
1582 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1586 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1587 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1594 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1595 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1596 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1597 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1598 are also not repeated.
1600 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1601 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1603 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1604 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1605 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1607 Volta repeats are printed over all staffs in a score. You must turn them
1608 off explicitly, for example by doing
1610 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1612 in all but the top staff.
1614 @node Manual repeat commands
1615 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1617 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1619 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1620 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1628 @item (volta . @var{text})
1629 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1631 Stop a running volta bracket
1634 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1636 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1638 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1643 Repeats brackets are @code{Staff.VoltaBracket} grobs.
1645 @node Tremolo repeats
1646 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1647 @cindex tremolo beams
1649 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1651 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1653 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1654 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1655 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1656 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1657 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1662 Tremolo beams are @code{Voice.Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1663 @code{Voice.StemTremolo}.
1668 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1669 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1671 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1672 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1673 @cindex tremolo marks
1674 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1676 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1677 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1678 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1679 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1680 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1682 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1683 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1689 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1692 @node Measure repeats
1693 @subsection Measure repeats
1695 @cindex percent repeats
1696 @cindex measure repeats
1698 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1699 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1700 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1701 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1703 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1704 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1705 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1709 The signs are represented by these grobs: @code{Voice.RepeatSlash} and
1710 @code{Voice.PercentRepeat} and @code{Voice.DoublePercentRepeat}.
1714 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1715 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1717 @node Rhythmic music
1718 @section Rhythmic music
1725 @node Rhythmic staffs
1726 @subsection Rhythmic staffs
1728 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1729 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1730 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1732 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1733 \context RhythmicStaff {
1735 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1742 @section Piano music
1744 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staffs are two normal
1745 staffs coupled with a brace. The staffs are largely independent, but
1746 sometimes voices can cross between the two staffs. The
1747 @code{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1748 behavior. In this section we discuss the @code{PianoStaff} and some
1749 other pianistic peculiarities.
1752 * Automatic staff changes::
1753 * Manual staff switches::
1756 * Voice follower lines::
1760 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1761 @node Automatic staff changes
1762 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1763 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1765 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1766 staff. The syntax for this is
1768 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1770 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1771 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1772 @code{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1773 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1774 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1776 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1777 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1778 \context Staff = "up" {
1779 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1780 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1781 \context Staff = "down" {
1787 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1788 terminating too soon.
1791 @node Manual staff switches
1792 @subsection Manual staff switches
1794 @cindex manual staff switches
1795 @cindex staff switch, manual
1797 Voices can be switched between staffs manually, using the following command:
1799 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1801 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1802 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1803 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1806 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1807 completeness we give it here.
1808 @cindex @code{\translator}
1810 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1812 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1813 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1814 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1815 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1823 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1824 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1825 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1827 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1828 @code{Sustain}, @code{UnaCorda} and @code{Sostenuto}:
1830 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1831 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1832 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1835 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1836 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1837 types. Refer to the generated documentation of @rgrob{PianoPedal} for
1843 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (i.e. `*Ped'
1849 @subsection Arpeggio
1852 @cindex broken arpeggio
1853 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1855 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1856 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1859 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1860 \context Voice <c'\arpeggio e g c>
1863 When an arpeggio crosses staffs in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1864 to the chords in both staffs, and set
1865 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1867 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1868 \context PianoStaff <
1869 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1870 \context Voice = one { <c''\arpeggio e g c> }
1871 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1875 This command creates @code{Voice.Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
1876 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}.
1880 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
1885 @node Voice follower lines
1886 @subsection Voice follower lines
1888 @cindex follow voice
1889 @cindex staff switching
1892 @cindex @code{followVoice}
1894 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
1895 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
1896 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
1898 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1899 \context PianoStaff <
1900 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
1901 \context Staff \context Voice {
1903 \translator Staff=two
1906 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
1910 The associated grob is @code{Voice.VoiceFollower}.
1920 * Automatic syllable durations::
1926 @subsection Lyrics mode
1929 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
1930 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
1934 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
1936 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
1937 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
1938 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
1939 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
1941 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
1942 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
1943 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
1946 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
1947 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
1948 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
1951 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
1954 @c . {Printing lyrics}
1955 @node Printing lyrics
1956 @subsection Printing lyrics
1959 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @code{Lyrics} context.
1961 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
1963 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1964 \addlyrics \notes \relative c' {
1966 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
1967 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
1968 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
1969 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1971 share the soft -- ware; }
1975 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
1976 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
1977 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
1978 the melody staff will cause slurs to be interpreted as melismata.
1980 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
1983 @cindex lyric extender
1986 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
1987 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
1988 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
1989 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
1990 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
1995 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
1996 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
1997 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
1998 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
1999 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2000 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2002 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2004 @node Automatic syllable durations
2005 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2006 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2008 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2009 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2011 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2012 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2015 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2018 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2019 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2020 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2022 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2024 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2025 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2028 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2031 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2032 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2034 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2038 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2039 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2040 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2042 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2044 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2045 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2047 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2048 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2051 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2052 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2053 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2055 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2058 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2060 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2065 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2066 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2069 @subsection More stanzas
2073 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2074 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2075 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2077 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2078 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2079 In the following example, the Voice
2080 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2081 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2084 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2087 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2089 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2090 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2091 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2092 Hi, my name is bert. }
2093 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2094 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2095 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2100 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2101 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2102 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2108 @cindex stanza numbering
2116 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2117 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2118 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2119 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2120 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2121 name, and print them as name.
2124 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2125 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2135 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2136 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2139 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2140 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2141 interpret this as an inversion.
2145 * Printing named chords::
2150 @subsection Chords mode
2153 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2154 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2155 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2156 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2158 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2159 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2161 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2163 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2166 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2167 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2168 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2169 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2170 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2171 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2172 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2173 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2175 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2176 using @code{\transpose}.
2178 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2182 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2192 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2193 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2194 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2195 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2196 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2197 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2198 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2200 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2203 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2209 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2210 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2213 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2222 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2223 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2224 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2225 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2227 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2237 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2238 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2239 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2240 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2242 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2253 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2254 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2257 @c . {Printing named chords}
2258 @node Printing named chords
2259 @subsection Printing named chords
2261 @cindex printing chord names
2264 @cindex @code{ChordNames}
2267 For displaying printed chord names, use the @code{ChordNames} context.
2268 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2269 directly using simultaneous music.
2271 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2273 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2277 \context ChordNames \scheme
2278 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2283 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2284 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2285 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2290 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2294 \context ChordNames {
2295 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2297 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2301 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2302 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2303 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2304 are entered as a list of pitches:
2306 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2315 \context ChordNames \scheme
2316 \context Staff \scheme
2322 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2323 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2324 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2325 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2326 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2328 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2329 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2330 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2334 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2335 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2345 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2346 \context ChordNames = american {
2347 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2348 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2349 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2350 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2351 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2352 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2359 @section Writing parts
2361 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2362 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2363 problems in orchestral music.
2370 * Instrument names::
2372 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2373 * Multi measure rests::
2374 * Automatic part combining::
2375 * Hara kiri staffs::
2378 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2379 @node Rehearsal marks
2380 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2381 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2383 @cindex @code{\mark}
2384 @cindex @code{Mark_engraver}
2387 \mark @var{unsigned}
2392 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2393 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2394 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2395 automatically incremented.
2397 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2403 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2408 The grob is @code{Score.RehearsalMark}. See
2409 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2412 @subsection Bar numbers
2414 Bar numbers (grob: @code{BarNumber}) are printed at the start of the
2415 line. See @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} for boxed bar numbers.
2419 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2422 @node Instrument names
2423 @subsection Instrument names
2425 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2426 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2427 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2428 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2430 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2431 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2434 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2438 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2440 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2443 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2444 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2452 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2453 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2454 the name to avoid a collision.
2457 @subsection Transpose
2459 @cindex transposition of pitches
2460 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2462 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2465 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2468 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2471 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2472 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2473 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2476 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2479 { \key e \major c d e f }
2481 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2482 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2486 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2487 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2488 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2490 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2491 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2493 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2495 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2496 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2497 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2499 @cindex @code{transposing}
2502 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2503 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2506 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2507 @node Multi measure rests
2508 @subsection Multi measure rests
2509 @cindex Multi measure rests
2513 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2514 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2516 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2517 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2518 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2521 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2522 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2525 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2528 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2532 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2533 a single multimeasure rest.
2535 @cindex condensing rests
2537 @node Automatic part combining
2538 @subsection Automatic part combining
2539 @cindex automatic part combining
2540 @cindex part combiner
2543 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2544 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2545 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2546 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2547 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2548 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2550 The syntax for part combining is
2553 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2555 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2556 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2557 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2560 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2561 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2563 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2565 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2566 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2569 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2575 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2576 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2577 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2578 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2579 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2582 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2583 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2585 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2587 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2588 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2589 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2592 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2598 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2599 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2600 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2601 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2602 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2603 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2607 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2608 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2611 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2613 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2614 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2617 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2623 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2624 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2625 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2627 @node Hara kiri staffs
2628 @subsection Hara kiri staffs
2630 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2631 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2632 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2633 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2634 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2635 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2638 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the Staff context. It is
2639 available as the context identifier @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}.
2640 Observe how the second staff in this example disappears in the second
2645 \notes \relative c' <
2646 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2647 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2651 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2664 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2665 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2666 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2667 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2668 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2673 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2678 \consists Custos_engraver
2684 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2685 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2686 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2687 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2690 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2691 @code{StaffContext} when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2692 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2693 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2694 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2701 \consists Custos_engraver
2702 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2707 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2712 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2713 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2717 @c . {Tuning output}
2719 @section Tuning output
2721 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2722 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2723 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2724 ways to do just that.
2726 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2727 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2728 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2729 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2731 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2732 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2733 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2734 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2735 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2738 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2739 * Tuning per grob ::
2747 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2748 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2750 @cindex grob description
2754 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2755 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2756 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2758 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2759 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2762 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2763 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2764 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2765 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2769 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2776 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2777 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2780 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2781 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2782 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2787 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2788 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2792 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2793 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2795 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2796 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2799 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2800 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2801 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2802 result as the previous one.
2804 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2805 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
2808 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
2811 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2813 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2814 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2815 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2817 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2818 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2821 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2822 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2823 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
2824 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
2825 must be carefully balanced.
2827 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
2830 A clumsy but correct form:
2832 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
2835 Shorter version of the same:
2837 \override \set \set \revert
2840 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
2843 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
2846 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
2849 \set \set \set \revert
2852 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
2853 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
2854 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
2855 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
2856 automatic beaming settings.
2860 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
2861 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
2862 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
2865 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
2866 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
2867 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
2868 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
2869 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
2870 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
2871 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
2872 using @code{\outputproperty}.
2877 @node Tuning per grob
2878 @subsection Tuning per grob
2880 @cindex \outputproperty
2882 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
2883 feature. The syntax is as follows:
2885 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2887 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
2888 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
2889 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
2890 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
2891 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
2893 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
2894 the appropriate context to apply this to.
2896 Here are some random examples.
2899 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
2900 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
2903 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
2905 \context Staff \outputproperty
2906 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
2907 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
2911 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
2913 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
2914 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
2915 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2916 #(define (make-text-checker text)
2917 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
2920 \notes\relative c''' {
2921 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
2922 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
2923 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
2931 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
2932 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
2938 @subsection What to tune?
2940 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
2941 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
2942 (although you may encounter some examples.).
2944 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
2945 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
2946 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
2947 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
2948 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
2949 where you got this manual.
2951 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
2954 which grob to modify
2956 which property to modify
2958 which context the grob comes from.
2961 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
2962 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
2963 properties available for that grob.
2965 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
2966 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
2969 @node Font selection
2970 @subsection Font selection
2972 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
2973 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
2974 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
2975 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
2976 characterized by its font name.
2978 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
2979 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
2980 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
2985 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
2986 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
2987 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
2988 signs) and @code{typewriter}
2991 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
2992 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
2993 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
2996 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
2997 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3000 @item font-relative-size
3001 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3002 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3003 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3005 @item font-design-size
3006 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3008 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3009 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3010 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3011 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3014 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3015 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3020 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3021 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3022 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3023 any value for that qualifier.
3026 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3027 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3030 @cindex @code{font-style}
3032 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3033 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3034 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3035 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3036 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3039 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3040 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3044 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3046 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3047 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts. You
3048 can scale the entire output, of course, see @ref{Output scaling}.
3050 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3053 @cindex font selection
3054 @cindex font magnification
3055 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3059 @subsection Text markup
3063 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3064 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3065 in the following way.
3067 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3072 c^#'(italic "italic")
3073 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3075 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3076 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3080 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3081 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3084 text: string | (head? text+)
3085 head: markup | (markup+)
3086 markup-item: property | abbrev
3087 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3088 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3089 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3090 @code{large Large dynamic}
3093 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3094 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3095 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3096 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3098 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3101 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3103 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3107 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3108 and uses named lookup
3115 lookup by character name
3117 plain text lookup (by character value)
3123 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3125 select fingering number fontstyle
3127 select volta number fontstyle
3129 select time signature number fontstyle
3131 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3133 select mark number fontstyle
3135 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3137 select large roman fontstyle
3139 select Large roman fontstyle
3141 select dynamics fontstyle
3145 @cindex metronome mark
3147 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3151 #(define note '(columns
3152 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3153 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3154 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3155 #(define dotted-eight-note
3156 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3159 \notes\relative c'' {
3160 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3166 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3172 @node Invisible grobs
3173 @subsection Invisible grobs
3174 @cindex invisible grobs
3178 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3184 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3185 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3186 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3187 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3189 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3191 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3192 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3194 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3196 \property Voice.Stem \override
3197 #'transparent = ##t }
3200 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3201 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3204 \notes\relative c'' {
3206 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3210 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3211 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3215 \notes\relative c'' {
3218 as bes c bes c d \break
3219 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3222 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3226 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3227 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3229 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3230 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3231 \paper { \translator {
3233 \remove Stem_engraver
3239 @subsection Dirty tricks
3240 @cindex embedded tex
3242 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3243 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3244 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3245 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3248 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3249 a''^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3252 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3253 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3254 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3255 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3260 \notes \relative c'' {
3261 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3262 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3263 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3267 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3274 @section Page layout
3277 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3278 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3279 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3293 @subsection Paper block
3296 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3297 music notation. The syntax is
3300 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3303 where each of the items is one of
3306 @item An assignment.
3308 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3309 more information on context definitions.
3311 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3313 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3316 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3317 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3319 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3321 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3322 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3326 @c . {Paper variables}
3327 @node Paper variables
3328 @subsection Paper variables
3329 @cindex Paper variables
3331 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3334 @cindex @code{indent}
3336 The indentation of the first line of music.
3337 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3339 @item @code{staffspace}
3340 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3343 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3344 @item @code{linewidth}
3345 Sets the width of the lines.
3347 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3348 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3349 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3350 produces a single line.
3352 @cindex @code{textheight}
3354 @item @code{textheight}
3355 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3358 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3360 @item @code{interscoreline}
3361 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3363 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3365 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3366 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3367 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3368 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3373 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3375 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3376 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3377 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3380 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3381 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3383 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3390 @subsection Font size
3393 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3394 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3395 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3396 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3398 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3399 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3400 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3401 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3402 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3403 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3405 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3406 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3412 @subsection Paper size
3417 @cindex @code{papersize}
3419 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3420 @code{papersize} variable at top level. Set it to
3421 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3422 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3423 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3427 \include "paper16.ly"
3430 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3431 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3436 @subsection Line break
3439 @cindex breaking lines
3441 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3442 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
3445 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3446 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3447 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3448 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3449 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3450 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3452 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3454 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3455 the penalty command:
3460 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3465 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3466 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3470 @subsection Page break
3473 @cindex breaking pages
3475 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3476 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3477 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3478 the command @code{\newpage}
3479 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3485 @c why do so difficult?
3486 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3487 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3489 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3492 @c . {Output scaling}
3493 @node Output scaling
3494 @subsection Output scaling
3508 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3509 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3513 @c . {Output formats}
3514 @node Output formats
3515 @section Output formats
3517 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3521 * PostScript output::
3523 * ASCIIScript output::
3527 @subsection TeX output
3530 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3531 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3532 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3533 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3534 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3535 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3539 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3542 @node PostScript output
3543 @subsection PostScript output
3544 @cindex PostScript output
3545 @cindex direct PostScript output
3547 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3548 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3549 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3552 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3553 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3554 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3556 Interpreting music...[3]
3557 Preprocessing elements...
3558 Calculating column positions...
3559 paper output to foo.ps...
3561 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3567 Text font selection is broken.
3569 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3570 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3571 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3572 printer before printing.
3574 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3575 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3580 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3586 @subsection Scheme output
3587 @cindex Scheme output
3589 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3590 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3591 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3592 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3593 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3597 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3598 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3599 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3601 Interpreting music...[3]
3602 Preprocessing elements...
3603 Calculating column positions...
3604 paper output to foo.scm...
3607 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3608 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3612 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3616 @node ASCIIScript output
3617 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3618 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3619 @cindex ascii script
3622 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3623 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3624 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3625 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3626 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3629 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3630 file in your .ly, one of:
3632 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3633 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3636 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3637 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3638 symbol has been made invisible:
3641 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3642 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3643 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3645 Interpreting music...[3]
3646 Preprocessing elements...
3647 Calculating column positions... [2]
3648 paper output to as-email.as...
3650 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3652 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3653 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3654 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3655 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3665 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3666 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3667 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3669 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3671 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3672 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3673 dropped in future versions.
3680 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3681 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3682 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3683 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3685 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3686 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3687 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3688 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3689 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3690 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3692 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3693 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3694 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3695 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3696 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3698 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3703 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3704 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3708 * MIDI instrument names::
3713 @subsection MIDI block
3717 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3718 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3722 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3723 @item context definitions
3726 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3730 @cindex context definition
3732 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3733 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3734 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3737 @node MIDI instrument names
3738 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3740 @cindex instrument names
3741 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3742 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3744 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3745 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3746 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3747 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3751 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3752 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3765 @section Music entry
3773 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3774 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3775 find and correct mistakes.
3779 @subsection Relative
3781 @cindex relative octave specification
3783 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3784 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3785 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3786 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3788 @cindex @code{\relative}
3790 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3793 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3794 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3795 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
3796 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
3797 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3800 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
3801 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
3802 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
3803 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3805 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3806 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3812 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3813 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3815 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
3818 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
3819 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
3820 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
3823 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3830 @cindex @code{\notes}
3832 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
3833 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
3834 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
3837 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
3838 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
3839 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
3840 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
3845 @subsection Bar check
3849 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
3853 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
3854 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
3855 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
3856 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
3857 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
3859 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
3861 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
3864 @c . {Point and click}
3865 @node Point and click
3866 @subsection Point and click
3868 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
3869 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
3870 error in the sheet music.
3872 To use it, you need the following software
3874 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
3878 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
3879 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
3881 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
3882 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
3883 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
3887 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
3888 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
3891 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
3893 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
3894 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
3895 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
3898 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
3901 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
3906 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
3909 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
3911 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
3912 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
3913 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
3915 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
3916 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
3920 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
3922 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
3923 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
3924 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
3925 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
3926 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
3927 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
3928 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
3929 init file, before invoking server-start.
3932 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
3935 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
3937 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
3940 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
3947 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
3948 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
3949 are harmless, and can be ignored.
3951 When using @code{line-column-location}, the cursor will be one off; it
3952 will not jump to the exact note that you clicked, but to the next one.
3956 @node Skipping corrected music
3957 @section Skipping corrected music
3959 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
3960 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
3961 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
3962 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
3965 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
3966 \relative c'' { c8 d
3967 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
3969 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
3974 @node Interpretation context
3975 @section Interpretation context
3978 * Creating contexts::
3979 * Default contexts::
3980 * Context properties::
3981 * Engravers and performers::
3982 * Changing context definitions::
3983 * Defining new contexts::
3987 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
3988 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
3989 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
3990 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
3993 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
3994 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
3998 @item What notes are playing at this point?
3999 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4000 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4004 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @code{Voice} context is
4005 contained in a @code{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4006 multiple voices at any point), a @code{Staff} context is contained in
4007 @code{Score}, @code{StaffGroup}, or @code{ChoirStaff} context.
4009 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4010 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4011 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4012 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4013 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4016 @node Creating contexts
4017 @subsection Creating contexts
4019 @cindex @code{\context}
4020 @cindex context selection
4022 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4023 following music expression.
4026 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4029 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4030 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4031 context does not exist, it will be created.
4033 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4035 \notes \relative c'' {
4036 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4042 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4043 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4044 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4045 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4046 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4047 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4048 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4052 @node Default contexts
4053 @subsection Default contexts
4055 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4056 declaration: they inherit the
4057 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4058 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4059 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4061 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4062 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4065 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4068 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4069 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4072 \context Score @var{music}
4076 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4077 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4079 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4080 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4083 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4084 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4085 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4086 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4087 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4088 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4090 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4091 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4094 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4095 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4098 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4099 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4101 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4102 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4107 @node Context properties
4108 @subsection Context properties
4110 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4111 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4112 @cindex @code{\property}
4114 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4117 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4118 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4119 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4121 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4122 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4123 @code{Voice} context can be set in the @code{Score} context (for
4124 example) and thus take effect in all @code{Voice} contexts.
4126 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4128 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4131 @cindex properties, unsetting
4132 @cindex @code{\unset}
4134 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4135 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4136 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4141 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4142 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4144 @node Engravers and performers
4145 @subsection Engravers and performers
4149 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4150 special C++ classes.
4154 @c . {Context definitions}
4155 @node Changing context definitions
4156 @subsection Changing context definitions
4158 @cindex context definition
4159 @cindex translator definition
4161 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4162 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4163 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4167 @var{context-identifier}
4170 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4172 \remove @var{engravername}
4173 \consists @var{engravername}
4177 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4181 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4185 \translator { \StaffContext
4186 \remove Clef_engraver
4192 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4195 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4196 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4197 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4198 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4200 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4201 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4202 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4203 command will override any predefined settings.
4206 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4207 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4208 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4210 @node Defining new contexts
4211 @subsection Defining new contexts
4213 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4214 following extra information:
4216 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4218 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4225 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4228 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4229 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4230 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4234 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4235 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4236 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4237 for this engraver are the following:
4239 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4240 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4241 The standard cooperation engraver.
4243 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4245 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4246 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4247 and only the top level context.
4249 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4251 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4252 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4253 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4260 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4261 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4262 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4264 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4265 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4266 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4269 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4270 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4271 End-users generally don't need this command.
4273 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4274 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4275 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4276 context to create by default.
4278 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4279 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4282 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4283 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @code{Staff},
4284 @code{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4288 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4289 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4290 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4291 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4296 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4303 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4311 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4318 @c . {Syntactic details}
4319 @node Syntactic details
4320 @section Syntactic details
4321 @cindex Syntactic details
4323 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4328 * Music expressions::
4329 * Manipulating music expressions::
4337 @subsection Top level
4340 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4344 @subsubsection Score
4347 @cindex score definition
4349 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4350 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4353 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4356 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4357 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4361 @c . {Default output}
4362 @subsubsection Default output
4364 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4365 entering such a block at the top level.
4368 @subsubsection Header
4370 @cindex @code{\header}
4373 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4374 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4375 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4376 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4377 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4379 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4383 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4384 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4387 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4389 @subsubsection Default output
4391 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4392 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4396 @subsection Identifiers
4400 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4401 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4407 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4408 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4409 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4410 specialized data types,
4417 @item Translator_def
4421 @item Music_output_def
4422 @item Moment (rational number)
4425 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4426 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4427 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4428 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4429 during a lilypond run.
4432 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4433 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4434 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4436 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4437 not yet user accessible.
4438 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4443 @node Music expressions
4444 @subsection Music expressions
4446 @cindex music expressions
4448 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4449 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4450 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4451 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4452 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4453 quarter note @code{d}:
4456 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4459 @cindex Sequential music
4460 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4461 @cindex sequential music
4464 @cindex Simultaneous music
4465 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4467 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4471 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4472 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4474 For both, there is a shorthand:
4476 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4480 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4482 for simultaneous music.
4483 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4484 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4485 are expressed in two different ways:
4487 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4488 \notes \context Voice {
4489 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4490 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4495 Other compound music expressions include
4498 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4499 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4500 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4501 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4505 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4506 @node Manipulating music expressions
4507 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4509 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4510 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4511 directly on it. The syntax is
4513 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4515 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4516 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4518 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4519 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4520 about how music is stored.
4522 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4523 #(define (testfunc x)
4524 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4525 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4527 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4528 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4533 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4537 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4538 generated documentation.
4541 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4542 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4545 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4547 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4548 #(define (reverse-music music)
4549 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4550 (reversed (reverse elements))
4551 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4552 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4554 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4555 (map reverse-music reversed)
4558 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4560 \score { \context Voice {
4562 \apply #reverse-music \music
4567 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4570 @c . {Span requests}
4576 @subsubsection Span requests
4577 @cindex Span requests
4579 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4580 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4584 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4588 @cindex @code{\start}
4589 @cindex @code{\stop}
4591 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4592 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4593 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4594 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4596 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4597 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4598 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4601 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4602 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4603 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4604 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4609 @subsection Assignments
4612 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4613 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4614 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4615 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4616 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4617 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4619 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4620 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4621 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4622 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4624 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4625 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4626 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4632 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4633 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4634 first item in a block.
4638 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4642 \paperIdent % correct
4647 @c . {Lexical modes}
4649 @subsection Lexical modes
4650 @cindex Lexical modes
4653 @cindex @code{\notes}
4654 @cindex @code{\chords}
4655 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4657 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4658 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4659 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4660 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4661 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4662 major triad respectively.
4664 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4666 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4667 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4668 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4671 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4672 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4673 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4674 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4676 Different input modes may be nested.
4680 @subsection Ambiguities
4685 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4689 @item The assignment
4694 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4695 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4696 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4697 containing the syllable `bar'.
4699 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4711 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4712 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4713 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4715 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4717 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4724 @c . {Lexical details}
4725 @node Lexical details
4726 @section Lexical details
4728 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4739 * Version information::
4744 @subsection Comments
4747 @cindex block comment
4748 @cindex line comment
4752 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4753 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4754 They cannot be nested.
4757 @subsection Direct Scheme
4761 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4764 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4765 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4766 wherever it is allowed,
4770 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
4772 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
4774 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
4775 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
4776 an integer (namely, 3).
4778 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
4781 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
4782 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
4783 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
4788 @subsection Keywords
4792 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
4793 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
4796 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
4797 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
4798 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
4799 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
4800 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
4801 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
4802 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
4803 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
4804 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
4809 @subsection Integers
4817 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
4818 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
4823 @cindex real numbers
4829 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
4830 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
4831 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
4832 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
4833 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
4841 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
4842 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
4843 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
4844 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
4852 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
4853 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
4854 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
4855 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
4856 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
4860 @subsection Main input
4863 @cindex @code{\maininput}
4865 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
4866 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
4868 @node File inclusion
4869 @subsection File inclusion
4870 @cindex @code{\include}
4872 \include @var{filename}
4875 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
4876 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
4877 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
4880 @node Version information
4881 @subsection Version information
4882 @cindex @code{\version}
4884 \version @var{string}
4887 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
4888 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
4889 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
4890 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
4891 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
4900 @c .{Local emacs vars}
4903 @c minor-mode: font-lock
4904 @c minor-mode: outline
4905 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
4906 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
4907 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
4908 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
4909 @c outline-override-protect: t