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13 @node Fundamental concepts
14 @chapter Fundamental concepts
16 You've seen in the Tutorial how to produce beautifully printed
17 music from a simple text file. This section introduces the
18 concepts and techniques required to produce equally beautiful
19 but more complex scores.
22 * How LilyPond input files work::
23 * Voices contain music::
24 * Contexts and engravers::
25 * Extending the templates::
29 @node How LilyPond input files work
30 @section How LilyPond input files work
32 The LilyPond input format is quite free-form, giving experienced
33 users a lot of flexibility to structure their files however they
34 wish. But this flexibility can make things confusing for new
35 users. This section will explain some of this structure, but may
36 gloss over some details in favor of simplicity. For a complete
37 description of the input format, see @ruser{File structure}.
40 * Introduction to the LilyPond file structure::
41 * Score is a (single) compound musical expression::
42 * Nesting music expressions::
43 * On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties::
46 @node Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
47 @subsection Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
50 @cindex file structure
52 A basic example of a LilyPond input file is
55 \version @w{"@version{}"}
60 @var{ @dots{} compound music expression @dots{} } % all the music goes here!
67 There are many variations of this basic pattern, but this
68 example serves as a useful starting place.
75 Up to this point none of the examples you have seen have used a
76 @code{\score@{@}} command. This is because LilyPond automatically
77 adds the extra commands which are needed when you give it simple
78 input. LilyPond treats input like this:
87 as shorthand for this:
104 In other words, if the input contains a single music expression,
105 LilyPond will interpret the file as though the music expression
106 was wrapped up inside the commands shown above.
108 @cindex implicit contexts
109 @cindex contexts, implicit
111 @strong{A word of warning!} Many of the examples in the LilyPond
112 documentation will omit the @code{\new Staff} and @code{\new Voice}
113 commands, leaving them to be created implicitly. For simple
114 examples this works well, but for more complex examples, especially
115 when additional commands are used, the implicit creation of contexts
116 can give surprising results, maybe creating extra unwanted staves.
117 The way to create contexts explicitly is explained in
118 @ref{Contexts and engravers}.
120 @warning{When entering more than a few lines of music it is
121 advisable to always create staves and voices explicitly.}
123 For now, though, let us return to the first example and examine the
124 @code{\score} command, leaving the others to default.
126 A @code{\score} block must always contain exactly one music
127 expression. Remember that a music expression could be anything
128 from a single note to a huge compound expression like
133 @var{ @dots{} insert the whole score of a Wagner opera in here @dots{} }
139 Since everything is inside @code{@{ @dots{} @}}, it counts
140 as one music expression.
142 As we saw previously, the @code{\score} block can contain other
162 Note that these three commands -- @code{\header}, @code{\layout} and
163 @code{\midi} -- are special: unlike many other commands which begin
164 with a backward slash (@code{\}) they are @emph{not} music expressions
165 and are not part of any music expression. So they may be placed
166 inside a @code{\score} block or outside it. In fact, these commands
167 are commonly placed outside the @code{\score} block -- for example,
168 @code{\header} is often placed above the @code{\score} command, as the
169 example at the beginning of this section shows.
171 Two more commands you have not previously seen are
172 @code{\layout @{ @}} and @code{\midi @{@}}. If these appear as
173 shown they will cause LilyPond to produce a printed output and a
174 MIDI output respectively. They are described fully in the
175 Notation Reference -- @ruser{Score layout}, and
176 @ruser{Creating MIDI output}.
178 @cindex scores, multiple
179 @cindex book block, implicit
180 @cindex implicit book block
183 You may code multiple @code{\score} blocks. Each will be
184 treated as a separate score, but they will be all combined into
185 a single output file. A @code{\book} command is not necessary
186 -- one will be implicitly created. However, if you would like
187 separate output files from one @file{.ly} file then the
188 @code{\book} command should be used to separate the different
189 sections: each @code{\book} block will produce a
190 separate output file.
194 Every @code{\book} block creates a separate output file (e.g., a
195 PDF file). If you haven't explicitly added one, LilyPond wraps
196 your entire input code in a @code{\book} block implicitly.
198 Every @code{\score} block is a separate chunk of music within a
201 @cindex layout block, effect of location
203 Every @code{\layout} block affects the @code{\score} or
204 @code{\book} block in which it appears -- i.e., a @code{\layout}
205 block inside a @code{\score} block affects only that @code{\score}
206 block, but a @code{\layout} block outside of a @code{\score} block
207 (and thus in a @code{\book} block, either explicitly or
208 implicitly) will affect every @code{\score} in that @code{\book}.
210 For details see @ruser{Multiple scores in a book}.
214 Another great shorthand is the ability to define variables, as
215 shown in @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}. All the
219 melody = \relative @{
228 When LilyPond looks at this file, it takes the value of
229 @code{melody} (everything after the equals sign) and inserts it
230 whenever it sees @code{\melody}. There's nothing special about
231 the name -- it could be @code{melody}, @code{global},
232 @code{keyTime}, @code{pianorighthand}, or something else.
233 Remember that you can use almost any name you like as long as it
234 contains just alphabetic characters and is distinct from LilyPond
235 command names. For more details, see @ref{Saving typing with
236 variables and functions}. The exact limitations on variable names
237 are detailed in @ruser{File structure}.
241 For a complete definition of the input format, see
242 @ruser{File structure}.
245 @node Score is a (single) compound musical expression
246 @subsection Score is a (single) compound musical expression
250 @cindex contents of a score block
251 @cindex score block, contents of
252 @cindex compound music expression
253 @cindex music expression, compound
255 We saw the general organization of LilyPond input files in the
256 previous section, @ref{Introduction to the LilyPond file structure}.
257 But we seemed to skip over the most important part: how do we figure
258 out what to write after @code{\score}?
260 We didn't skip over it at all. The big mystery is simply that
261 there @emph{is} no mystery. This line explains it all:
264 @emph{A @code{\score} block must contain exactly one music expression.}
268 To understand what is meant by a
269 music expression, you may find it useful to review the tutorial,
270 @ref{Music expressions explained}. In that section, we saw how to
271 build big music expressions from small pieces -- we started from
272 notes, then chords, etc. Now we're going to start from a big
273 music expression and work our way down. For simplicity, we'll use
274 just a singer and piano in our example. We don't need a
275 @code{StaffGroup} for this ensemble, which simply groups a number
276 of staves together with a bracket at the left, but we do need
277 staves for a singer and a piano, though.
282 \new Staff = "singer" <<
284 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
291 Here we have given names to the staves -- @qq{singer} and
292 @qq{piano}. This is not essential here, but it is a useful habit
293 to cultivate so that you can see at a glance what each stave is
296 Remember that we use @code{<< @dots{} >>} instead of @code{@{ @dots{} @}} to
297 show simultaneous music. This causes the vocal part and piano part
298 to appear one above the other in the score. The @code{<< @dots{} >>}
299 construct would not be necessary for the Singer staff in the example
300 above if it were going to contain only one sequential music
301 expression, but @code{<< @dots{} >>} rather than braces is necessary if
302 the music in the Staff is to contain two or more simultaneous
303 expressions, e.g. two simultaneous Voices, or a Voice with lyrics.
304 We're going to have a voice with lyrics, so angle brackets are
305 required. We'll add some real music later; for now let's just put
306 in some dummy notes and lyrics. If you've forgotten how to add lyrics
307 you may wish to review @code{\addlyrics} in @ref{Setting simple songs}.
309 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
312 \new Staff = "singer" <<
313 \new Voice = "vocal" { c'1 }
316 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
317 \new Staff = "upper" { c'1 }
318 \new Staff = "lower" { c'1 }
325 Now we have a lot more details. We have the singer's staff: it
326 contains a @code{Voice} (in LilyPond, this term refers to a set of
327 notes, not necessarily vocal notes -- for example, a violin
328 generally plays one voice) and some lyrics. We also have a piano
329 staff: it contains an upper staff (right hand) and a lower staff
330 (left hand), although the lower staff has yet to be given a bass
333 At this stage, we could start filling in notes. Inside the curly
334 braces next to @code{\new Voice = "vocal"}, we could start writing
338 r4 d''8\noBeam g, c4 r
342 But if we did that, the @code{\score} section would get pretty
343 long, and it would be harder to understand what was happening. So
344 let's use variables instead. These were introduced at the end
345 of the previous section, remember? To ensure the contents of the
346 @code{text} variable are interpreted as lyrics we preface them with
347 @code{\lyricmode}. Like @code{\addlyrics}, this switches the input
348 mode to lyrics. Without that, LilyPond would try to interpret the
349 contents as notes, which would generate errors. (Several other
350 input modes are available, see @ruser{Input modes}.)
352 So, adding a few notes and a bass clef for the left hand, we now
353 have a piece of real music:
355 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
356 melody = \relative { r4 d''8\noBeam g, c4 r }
357 text = \lyricmode { And God said, }
358 upper = \relative { <g' d g,>2~ <g d g,> }
359 lower = \relative { b,2 e }
363 \new Staff = "singer" <<
364 \new Voice = "vocal" { \melody }
367 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
368 \new Staff = "upper" { \upper }
369 \new Staff = "lower" {
379 When writing (or reading) a @code{\score} section, just take it
380 slowly and carefully. Start with the outer level, then work on
381 each smaller level. It also really helps to be strict with
382 indentation -- make sure that each item on the same level starts
383 on the same horizontal position in your text editor.
387 Notation Reference: @ruser{Structure of a score}.
390 @node Nesting music expressions
391 @subsection Nesting music expressions
393 @cindex staves, temporary
394 @cindex temporary staves
397 It is not essential to declare all staves at the beginning; they may
398 be introduced temporarily at any point. This is particularly useful
399 for creating ossia sections -- see @rglos{ossia}. Here is a simple
400 example showing how to introduce a new staff temporarily for the
401 duration of three notes:
403 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
420 Note that the size of the clef is the same as a clef printed
421 following a clef change -- slightly smaller than the clef
422 at the beginning of the line. This is usual for clefs printed
423 in the middle of a line.
425 @cindex staff, positioning
427 The ossia section may be placed above the staff
430 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
431 \new Staff = "main" {
438 alignAboveContext = #"main"
446 This example uses @code{\with}, which will be explained more
447 fully later. It is a means of modifying the default behavior
448 of a single Staff. Here it says that the new staff should be
449 placed above the staff called @qq{main} instead of the default
450 position which is below.
454 Ossia are often written without clef and without
455 time signature and are usually in a smaller font.
456 These require further commands which
457 have not yet been introduced. See @ref{Size of objects},
458 and @ruser{Ossia staves}.
461 @node On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
462 @subsection On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
464 @cindex brackets, nesting
465 @cindex bracket types
466 @cindex brackets, enclosing vs. marking
468 You have already met a number of different types of bracket and
469 bracket-like constructs in writing the input file to LilyPond.
470 These obey different rules which can be confusing at first.
471 Let's first review the different types of brackets and bracket-like
474 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
476 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
477 @headitem Bracket Type
479 @item @code{@{ @dots{} @}}
480 @tab Encloses a sequential segment of music
481 @item @code{< @dots{} >}
482 @tab Encloses the notes of a chord
483 @item @code{<< @dots{} >>}
484 @tab Encloses simultaneous music expressions
485 @item @code{( @dots{} )}
486 @tab Marks the start and end of a slur
487 @item @code{\( @dots{} \)}
488 @tab Marks the start and end of a phrasing slur
489 @item @code{[ @dots{} ]}
490 @tab Marks the start and end of a manual beam
493 To these we should add other constructs which generate lines
494 between or across notes: ties (marked by a tilde, @code{~}),
495 tuplets written as @code{\tuplet x/y @{ @dots{} @}}, and grace notes
496 written as @code{\grace @{ @dots{} @}}.
498 Outside LilyPond, the conventional use of brackets requires the
499 different types to be properly nested, like this, @code{<< [ @{ ( @dots{} )
500 @} ] >>}, with the closing brackets being encountered in exactly the
501 opposite order to the opening brackets. This @strong{is} a
502 requirement for the three types of bracket described by the word
503 @q{Encloses} in the table above -- they must nest properly. However,
504 the remaining bracket-like constructs, described with the word
505 @q{Marks} in the table above together with ties and tuplets, do
506 @strong{not} have to nest properly with any of the brackets or
507 bracket-like constructs. In fact, these are not brackets in
508 the sense that they enclose something -- they are simply markers to
509 indicate where something starts and ends.
511 So, for example, a phrasing slur can start before a manually
512 inserted beam and end before the end of the beam -- not very
513 musical, perhaps, but possible:
515 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
516 \relative { g'8\( a b[ c b\) a] g4 }
519 In general, different kinds of brackets, bracket-like constructs,
520 and those implied by tuplets, ties and grace notes, may be mixed
521 freely. This example shows a beam extending into a tuplet (line 1),
522 a slur extending into a tuplet (line 2), a beam and a slur
523 extending into a tuplet, a tie crossing two tuplets, and a
524 phrasing slur extending out of a tuplet (lines 3 and 4).
526 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
528 r16[ g' \tuplet 3/2 { r16 e'8] }
529 g,16( a \tuplet 3/2 { b16 d) e }
530 g,8[( a \tuplet 3/2 { b8 d) e~] } |
531 \tuplet 5/4 { e32\( a, b d e } a4.\)
536 @node Voices contain music
537 @section Voices contain music
539 Singers need voices to sing, and so does LilyPond.
540 The actual music for all instruments in a score
541 is contained in Voices -- the most fundamental
542 of all LilyPond's concepts.
545 * I'm hearing Voices::
546 * Explicitly instantiating voices::
547 * Voices and vocals::
550 @node I'm hearing Voices
551 @subsection I'm hearing Voices
555 @cindex multiple voices
556 @cindex voices, multiple
557 @cindex Voice context
558 @cindex context, Voice
559 @cindex simultaneous music
560 @cindex music, simultaneous
561 @cindex concurrent music
562 @cindex music, concurrent
563 @cindex voices vs. chords
564 @cindex chords vs. voices
566 The lowest, most fundamental or innermost layers in a LilyPond
567 score are called @q{Voice contexts} or just @q{Voices} for short.
568 Voices are sometimes called @q{layers} in other notation
571 In fact, a Voice layer or context is the only one which can contain
572 music. If a Voice context is not explicitly declared one is created
573 automatically, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter. Some
574 instruments such as an Oboe can play only one note at a time. Music
575 written for such instruments requires just a single voice. Instruments
576 which can play more than one note at a time like the piano will often
577 require multiple voices to encode the different concurrent notes and
578 rhythms they are capable of playing.
580 A single voice can contain many notes in a chord, of course,
581 so when exactly are multiple voices needed? Look first at
582 this example of four chords:
584 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
587 <d' g>4 <d fis> <d a'> <d g>
591 This can be expressed using just the single angle bracket chord
592 symbols, @code{< @dots{} >}, and for this just a single voice is
593 needed. But suppose the F-sharp were actually an eighth-note
594 followed by an eighth-note G, a passing note on the way to the A?
595 Now we have two notes which start at the same time but have
596 different durations: the quarter-note D and the eighth-note
597 F-sharp. How are these to be coded? They cannot be written as
598 a chord because all the notes in a chord must have the same
599 duration. And they cannot be written as two sequential notes
600 as they need to start at the same time. This is when two
603 Let us see how this is done in LilyPond input syntax.
608 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a
609 staff is to enter each voice as a sequence (with @code{@{ @dots{} @}}),
610 and combine them simultaneously with angle brackets, @code{<< @dots{} >>}.
611 The fragments must also be separated with double backward slashes,
612 @code{\\}, to place them in separate voices. Without these, the
613 notes would be entered into a single voice, which would usually
614 cause errors. This technique is particularly suited to pieces of
615 music which are largely homophonic with occasional short sections
618 Here's how we split the chords above into two voices and add both
619 the passing note and a slur:
621 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
624 % Voice = "1" Voice = "2"
625 << { g'4 fis8( g) a4 g } \\ { d4 d d d } >>
629 Notice how the stems of the second voice now point down.
631 Here's another simple example:
633 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
636 % Voice = "1" Voice = "2"
637 << { r4 g' g4. a8 } \\ { d,2 d4 g } >> |
638 << { bes4 bes c bes } \\ { g4 g g8( a) g4 } >> |
639 << { a2. r4 } \\ { fis2. s4 } >> |
643 It is not necessary to use a separate @code{<< \\ >>} construct
644 for each bar. For music with few notes in each bar this layout
645 can help the legibility of the code, but if there are many
646 notes in each bar it may be better to split out each voice
647 separately, like this:
649 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
652 \relative { % Voice = "1"
657 \relative { % Voice = "2"
666 @cindex voices, naming
667 @cindex voices crossing brackets
668 @cindex slurs crossing brackets
669 @cindex ties crossing brackets
671 This example has just two voices, but the same construct may be
672 used to encode three or more voices by adding more back-slash
675 The Voice contexts bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
676 The first contexts set the @emph{outer} voices, the highest
677 voice in context @code{"1"} and the lowest voice in context
678 @code{"2"}. The inner voices go in contexts @code{"3"} and
679 @code{"4"}. In each of these contexts, the vertical direction
680 of slurs, stems, ties, dynamics etc., is set appropriately.
682 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
683 \new Staff \relative {
686 % Voice = "1" Voice = "2" Voice = "3"
687 << { g4 f e } \\ { r8 e4 d c8~ } >> |
688 << { d2 e } \\ { c8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 } \\ { s4 b c2 } >> |
692 These voices are all separate from the main voice that contains
693 the notes just outside the @code{<< @dots{} >>} construct. Let's call
694 this the @emph{simultaneous construct}. Slurs and ties may only
695 connect notes within the same voice, so slurs and ties cannot go
696 into or out of a simultaneous construct. Conversely,
697 parallel voices from separate simultaneous constructs on the same
698 staff are the same voice. Other voice-related properties also
699 carry across simultaneous constructs. Here is the same example,
700 with different colors and note heads for each voice. Note that
701 changes in one voice do not affect other voices, but they do
702 persist in the same voice later. Note also that tied notes may be
703 split across the same voices in two constructs, shown here in the
706 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
707 \new Staff \relative {
736 @funindex \voiceOneStyle
737 @funindex \voiceTwoStyle
738 @funindex \voiceThreeStyle
739 @funindex \voiceFourStyle
740 @funindex \voiceNeutralStyle
742 The commands @code{\voiceXXXStyle} are mainly intended for use in
743 educational documents such as this one. They modify the color
744 of the note head, the stem and the beams, and the style of the
745 note head, so that the voices may be easily distinguished.
746 Voice one is set to red diamonds, voice two to blue triangles,
747 voice three to green crossed circles, and voice four (not used
748 here) to magenta crosses; @code{\voiceNeutralStyle} (also not
749 used here) reverts the style back to the default.
750 We shall see later how commands like these may be created by the
752 See @ref{Visibility and color of objects} and
753 @ref{Using variables for layout adjustments}.
755 @cindex polyphony and relative note entry
756 @cindex relative note entry and polyphony
758 Polyphony does not change the relationship of notes within a
759 @code{\relative} block. Each note is still calculated relative to
760 the note immediately preceding it, or to the first note of the
761 preceding chord. So in
764 \relative @{ noteA << < noteB noteC > \\ noteD >> noteE @}
768 @code{noteB} is relative to @code{noteA} @*
769 @code{noteC} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA}; @*
770 @code{noteD} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA} or
772 @code{noteE} is relative to @code{noteD}, not @code{noteA}.
774 An alternative way, which may be clearer if the notes in the
775 voices are widely separated, is to place a @code{\relative}
776 command at the start of each voice:
779 \relative @{ noteA @dots{} @}
781 \relative @{ < noteB noteC > @dots{} @}
783 \relative @{ noteD @dots{} @}
785 \relative @{ noteE @dots{} @}
788 Let us finally analyze the voices in a more complex piece of music.
789 Here are the notes from the first two bars of the second of Chopin's
790 Deux Nocturnes, Op 32. This example will be used at later stages in
791 this and the next chapter to illustrate several techniques for
792 producing notation, so please ignore for now anything in the
793 underlying code which looks mysterious and concentrate just on the
794 music and the voices -- the complications will all be explained in
797 @c The following should appear as music without code
798 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
799 \new Staff \relative {
805 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
806 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
808 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0.5
814 \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
822 The direction of the stems is often used to indicate the continuity of
823 two simultaneous melodic lines. Here the stems of the highest notes
824 are all pointing up and the stems of the lower notes are all pointing
825 down. This is the first indication that more than one voice is
828 But the real need for multiple voices arises when notes
829 which start at the same time have different durations.
830 Look at the notes which start at beat three in the first
831 bar. The A-flat is a dotted quarter note, the F is a
832 quarter note and the D-flat is a half note. These
833 cannot be written as a chord as all the notes in a chord
834 must have the same duration. Neither can they be written
835 as sequential notes, as they must start at the same time.
836 This section of the bar requires three voices, and the
837 normal practice would be to write the whole bar as three
838 voices, as shown below, where we have used different note heads
839 and colors for the three voices. Again, the code behind this
840 example will be explained later, so ignore anything you do
843 @c The following should appear as music without code
844 @c The three voice styles should be defined in -init
845 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
846 \new Staff \relative {
855 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
856 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
858 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0.5
861 \\ % No Voice three (we want stems down)
864 \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
873 Let us try to encode this music from scratch. As we
874 shall see, this encounters some difficulties. We begin as
875 we have learnt, using the @code{<< \\ >>} construct to
876 enter the music of the first bar in three voices:
878 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
879 \new Staff \relative {
882 { c''2 aes4. bes8 } \\ { <ees, c>2 des } \\ { aes'2 f4 fes }
889 @cindex voices and stem directions
890 @cindex stem directions and voices
893 The stem directions are automatically assigned with the
894 odd-numbered voices taking upward stems and the even-numbered
895 voices downward ones. The stems for voices 1 and 2 are right,
896 but the stems in voice 3 should go down in this particular piece
897 of music. We can correct this by skipping voice three
898 and placing the music in voice four. This is done by simply
899 adding another pair of @code{\\}.
901 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
902 \new Staff \relative {
908 \\ % Omit Voice three
917 We see that this fixes the stem direction, but the horizontal
918 placement of notes is not what we want. LilyPond shifts the
919 inner notes when they or their stems would collide with outer
920 voices, but this is not appropriate for piano music. In other
921 situations, the shifts LilyPond applies might fail to clear
922 the collisions. LilyPond provides several ways to adjust the
923 horizontal placing of notes. We are not quite ready yet to see
924 how to correct this, so we shall leave this problem until a
925 later section --- see the @code{force-hshift} property in
926 @ref{Fixing overlapping notation}.
928 @warning{Lyrics, spanners (such as slurs, ties, hairpins etc.) cannot be
929 created @q{across} voices.}
933 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
936 @node Explicitly instantiating voices
937 @subsection Explicitly instantiating voices
941 @funindex \voiceThree
945 @cindex voice contexts, creating
947 Voice contexts can also be created manually
948 inside a @code{<< >>} block to create polyphonic music, using
949 @code{\voiceOne} @dots{} @code{\voiceFour} to indicate the required
950 directions of stems, slurs, etc. In longer scores this method
951 is clearer, as it permits the voices to be separated and to be
952 given more descriptive names.
954 Specifically, the construct @code{<< \\ >>} which we used in
955 the previous section:
960 << @{ e'4 f g a @} \\ @{ c,4 d e f @} >>
970 \new Voice = "1" @{ \voiceOne \relative @{ e'4 f g a @} @}
971 \new Voice = "2" @{ \voiceTwo \relative @{ c'4 d e f @} @}
975 Both of the above would produce
977 @c The following example should not display the code
978 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
980 \new Voice = "1" { \voiceOne \relative { e'4 f g a } }
981 \new Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo \relative { c'4 d e f } }
985 @cindex voices, reverting to single
986 @cindex reverting to a single voice
988 The @code{\voiceXXX} commands set the direction of stems, slurs,
989 ties, articulations, text annotations, augmentation dots of dotted
990 notes, and fingerings. @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceThree}
991 make these objects point upwards, while @code{\voiceTwo} and
992 @code{\voiceFour} make them point downwards. These commands also
993 generate a horizontal shift for each voice when this is required
994 to avoid clashes of note heads. The command @code{\oneVoice}
995 reverts the settings back to the normal values for a single voice.
997 Let us see in some simple examples exactly what effect
998 @code{\oneVoice}, @code{\voiceOne} and @code{voiceTwo} have on
999 markup, ties, slurs, and dynamics:
1001 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1003 % Default behavior or behavior after \oneVoice
1004 c'4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1008 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1011 c'4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1013 c,4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1017 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1020 c'4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1022 c,4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1026 Now let's look at three different ways to notate the same passage of
1027 polyphonic music, each of which is advantageous in different
1028 circumstances, using the example from the previous section.
1030 An expression that appears directly inside a @code{<< >>} belongs to the
1031 main voice (but, note, @strong{not} in a @code{<< \\ >>} construct).
1032 This is useful when extra voices appear while the main voice is playing.
1033 Here is a more correct rendition of our example. The red diamond-shaped
1034 notes demonstrate that the main melody is now in a single voice context,
1035 permitting a phrasing slur to be drawn over them.
1037 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1038 \new Staff \relative {
1040 % This section is homophonic
1042 % Start simultaneous section of three voices
1044 % Continue the main voice in parallel
1045 { g4 f e | d2 e) | }
1046 % Initiate second voice
1048 % Set stems, etc., down
1050 r8 e4 d c8~ | 8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 |
1052 % Initiate third voice
1054 % Set stems, etc, up
1062 @cindex nesting music expressions
1063 @cindex nesting simultaneous constructs
1064 @cindex nesting voices
1065 @cindex voices, temporary
1066 @cindex voices, nesting
1068 More deeply nested polyphony constructs are possible, and if a
1069 voice appears only briefly this might be a more natural way to
1072 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1073 \new Staff \relative {
1076 { g4 f e | d2 e) | }
1081 { c8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 | }
1092 @cindex spacing notes
1094 This method of nesting new voices briefly is useful
1095 when only small sections of the music
1096 are polyphonic, but when the whole staff is largely polyphonic
1097 it can be clearer to use multiple voices throughout, using
1098 spacing notes to step over sections where the voice is silent,
1101 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1102 \new Staff \relative <<
1103 % Initiate first voice
1106 c'16^( d e f g4 f e | d2 e) |
1108 % Initiate second voice
1110 % Set stems, etc, down
1112 s4 r8 e4 d c8~ | 8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 |
1114 % Initiate third voice
1116 % Set stems, etc, up
1123 @subsubheading Note columns
1126 @cindex note collisions
1127 @cindex collisions, notes
1128 @cindex shift commands
1132 @funindex \shiftOnnn
1134 Closely spaced notes in a chord, or notes occurring at the same
1135 time in different voices, are arranged in two, occasionally more,
1136 columns to prevent the note heads overlapping. These are called
1137 note columns. There are separate columns for each voice, and
1138 the currently specified voice-dependent shift is applied to the
1139 note column if there would otherwise be a collision. This can
1140 be seen in the example above. In bar 2 the C in voice two is
1141 shifted to the right relative to the D in voice one, and in the
1142 final chord the C in voice three is also shifted to the right
1143 relative to the other notes.
1145 The @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, @code{\shiftOnnn}, and
1146 @code{\shiftOff} commands specify the degree to which notes and
1147 chords of the voice should be shifted if a collision
1148 would otherwise occur. By default, the outer voices (normally
1149 voices one and two) have @code{\shiftOff} specified, while the
1150 inner voices (three and four) have @code{\shiftOn} specified.
1151 When a shift is applied, voices one and three are shifted to
1152 the right and voices two and four to the left.
1154 @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn} define further shift
1155 levels which may be specified temporarily to resolve collisions
1156 in complex situations -- see @ref{Real music example}.
1158 A note column can contain just one note (or chord) from a voice
1159 with stems up and one note (or chord) from a voice with stems
1160 down. If notes from two voices which have their stems in the
1161 same direction are placed at the same position and both voices
1162 have no shift or the same shift specified, the error message
1163 @qq{This voice needs a @code{@bs{}voiceXx} or @code{@bs{}shiftXx} setting}
1169 @ref{Moving objects}.
1172 @ruser{Multiple voices}.
1175 @node Voices and vocals
1176 @subsection Voices and vocals
1178 Vocal music presents a special difficulty: we need to combine two
1179 expressions -- notes and lyrics.
1181 @funindex \new Lyrics
1184 @cindex Lyrics context, creating
1185 @cindex lyrics, linking to voice
1187 You have already seen the @code{\addlyrics@{@}} command, which
1188 handles simple scores well. However, this technique is
1189 quite limited. For more complex music, you must introduce the
1190 lyrics in a @code{Lyrics} context using @code{\new Lyrics} and
1192 the lyrics to the notes with @code{\lyricsto@{@}}, using the
1193 name assigned to the Voice.
1195 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1197 \new Voice = "one" {
1201 c''4 b8. a16 | g4. f8 | e4 d | c2 |
1204 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
1205 No more let | sins and | sor -- rows | grow. |
1210 Note that the lyrics must be linked to a @code{Voice} context,
1211 @emph{not} a @code{Staff} context. This is a case where it is
1212 necessary to create @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts
1215 @cindex lyrics and beaming
1216 @cindex beaming and lyrics
1217 @funindex \autoBeamOff
1219 The automatic beaming which LilyPond uses by default works well
1220 for instrumental music, but not so well for music with lyrics,
1221 where beaming is either not required at all or is used to indicate
1222 melismata in the lyrics. In the example above we use the command
1223 @code{\autoBeamOff} to turn off the automatic beaming.
1225 @funindex \new ChoirStaff
1226 @funindex ChoirStaff
1227 @funindex \lyricmode
1228 @cindex vocal score structure
1231 Let us reuse the earlier example from Judas Maccabæus to
1232 illustrate this more flexible technique. We first recast
1233 it to use variables so the music and lyrics can be separated
1234 from the staff structure. We also introduce a ChoirStaff
1235 bracket. The lyrics themselves must be introduced with
1236 @code{\lyricmode} to ensure they are interpreted as lyrics
1239 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1240 global = { \key f \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }
1242 SopOneMusic = \relative {
1243 c''8 | c8([ bes)] a a([ g)] f | f'4. b, | c4.~ 4
1245 SopOneLyrics = \lyricmode {
1246 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, __
1248 SopTwoMusic = \relative {
1249 r8 | r4. r4 c'8 | a'8([ g)] f f([ e)] d | e8([ d)] c bes'
1251 SopTwoLyrics = \lyricmode {
1252 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn,
1258 \new Voice = "SopOne" {
1262 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopOne" {
1267 \new Voice = "SopTwo" {
1271 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopTwo" {
1279 This is the basic structure of all vocal scores. More staves may be
1280 added as required, more voices may be added to the staves, more verses
1281 may be added to the lyrics, and the variables containing the music can
1282 easily be placed in separate files should they become too long.
1284 @cindex hymn structure
1285 @cindex SATB structure
1286 @cindex vocal scores with multiple verses
1287 @cindex multiple vocal verses
1288 @cindex verses, multiple vocal
1290 Here is an example of the first line of a hymn with four
1291 verses, set for SATB. In this case the words for all four
1292 parts are the same. Note how we use variables to separate the
1293 music notation and words from the staff structure. See too
1294 how a variable, which we have chosen to call @q{keyTime}, is used
1295 to hold several commands for use within the two staves. In other
1296 examples this is often called @q{global}.
1298 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1299 keyTime = { \key c \major \time 4/4 \partial 4 }
1301 SopMusic = \relative { c'4 | e4. e8 g4 g | a4 a g }
1302 AltoMusic = \relative { c'4 | c4. c8 e4 e | f4 f e }
1303 TenorMusic = \relative { e4 | g4. g8 c4. b8 | a8 b c d e4 }
1304 BassMusic = \relative { c4 | c4. c8 c4 c | f8 g a b c4 }
1307 \lyricmode { E -- | ter -- nal fa -- ther, | strong to save, }
1309 \lyricmode { O | Christ, whose voice the | wa -- ters heard, }
1311 \lyricmode { O | Ho -- ly Spi -- rit, | who didst brood }
1313 \lyricmode { O | Tri -- ni -- ty of | love and pow'r }
1319 \new Voice = "Sop" { \voiceOne \keyTime \SopMusic }
1320 \new Voice = "Alto" { \voiceTwo \AltoMusic }
1321 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseOne }
1322 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseTwo }
1323 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseThree }
1324 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseFour }
1328 \new Voice = "Tenor" { \voiceOne \keyTime \TenorMusic }
1329 \new Voice = "Bass" { \voiceTwo \BassMusic }
1337 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1340 @node Contexts and engravers
1341 @section Contexts and engravers
1343 Contexts and engravers have been mentioned informally
1344 in earlier sections; we now must look at
1345 these concepts in more detail, as they are important
1346 in the fine-tuning of LilyPond output.
1350 * Contexts explained::
1351 * Creating contexts::
1352 * Engravers explained::
1353 * Modifying context properties::
1354 * Adding and removing engravers::
1357 @node Contexts explained
1358 @subsection Contexts explained
1360 @cindex contexts explained
1362 When music is printed, many notational elements which do not
1363 appear explicitly in the input file must be added to the
1364 output. For example, compare the input and output of the
1367 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1368 \relative { cis''4 cis2. | a4 a2. | }
1371 The input is rather sparse, but in the output, bar lines,
1372 accidentals, clef, and time signature have been added. When
1373 LilyPond @emph{interprets} the input the musical information
1374 is parsed from left to right, similar to the way a performer
1375 reads the score. While reading the input, the program remembers
1376 where measure boundaries are, and which pitches require explicit
1377 accidentals. This information must be held on several levels.
1378 For example, an accidental affects only a single staff, while
1379 a bar line must be synchronized across the entire score.
1381 Within LilyPond, these rules and bits of information are grouped in
1382 @emph{Contexts}. We have already introduced the @code{Voice} context.
1383 Others are the @code{Staff} and @code{Score} contexts. Contexts are
1384 hierarchical to reflect the hierarchical nature of a musical score.
1385 For example: a @code{Staff} context can contain many @code{Voice}
1386 contexts, and a @code{Score} context can contain many @code{Staff}
1390 @sourceimage{context-example,5cm,,}
1393 Each context has the responsibility for enforcing some notation rules,
1394 creating some notation objects and maintaining the associated
1395 properties. For example, the @code{Voice} context may introduce an
1396 accidental and then the @code{Staff} context maintains the rule to
1397 show or suppress the accidental for the remainder of the measure.
1399 As another example, the synchronization of bar lines is, by default,
1400 handled in the @code{Score} context.
1401 However, in some music we may not want the bar lines to be
1402 synchronized -- consider a polymetric score in 4/4 and 3/4 time.
1403 In such cases, we must modify the default settings of the
1404 @code{Score} and @code{Staff} contexts.
1406 For very simple scores, contexts are created implicitly, and you need
1407 not be aware of them. For larger pieces, such as anything with more
1408 than one staff, they must be
1409 created explicitly to make sure that you get as many staves as you
1410 need, and that they are in the correct order. For typesetting pieces
1411 with specialized notation, it is usual to modify existing, or
1412 even to define totally new, contexts.
1414 In addition to the @code{Score,} @code{Staff} and
1415 @code{Voice} contexts there are contexts which fit between
1416 the score and staff levels to control staff groups, such as the
1417 @code{PianoStaff} and @code{ChoirStaff} contexts. There
1418 are also alternative staff and voice contexts, and contexts for
1419 lyrics, percussion, fret boards, figured bass, etc.
1421 The names of all context types are formed from one or more
1422 words, each word being capitalized and joined immediately to the
1423 preceding word with no hyphen or underscore, e.g.,
1424 @code{GregorianTranscriptionStaff}.
1428 Notation Reference: @ruser{Contexts explained}.
1431 @node Creating contexts
1432 @subsection Creating contexts
1435 @cindex new contexts
1436 @cindex creating contexts
1437 @cindex contexts, creating
1439 In an input file a score block, introduced with a @code{\score}
1440 command, contains a single music expression and an associated
1441 output definition (either a @code{\layout} or a @code{\midi} block).
1442 The @code{Score} context is usually left to be created automatically
1443 when the interpretation of that music expression starts.
1445 For scores with only one voice and one staff, the @code{Voice} and
1446 @code{Staff} contexts may also be left to be created automatically,
1447 but for more complex scores it is necessary to create them by hand.
1448 The simplest command that does this is @code{\new}. It is prepended
1449 to a music expression, for example
1452 \new @var{type} @var{music-expression}
1456 where @var{type} is a context name (like @code{Staff} or
1457 @code{Voice}). This command creates a new context, and starts
1458 interpreting the @var{music-expression} within that context.
1460 @warning{@bs{}@code{new Score} should not be used as the essential
1461 top-level @code{Score} context is created automatically when the music
1462 expression within the @bs{}@code{score} block is interpreted. Score-wide
1463 default values of context properties can be changed within the
1464 @bs{}@code{layout} block. See @ref{Modifying context properties}}
1466 You have seen many practical examples which created new
1467 @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts in earlier sections, but
1468 to remind you how these commands are used in practice, here's an
1469 annotated real-music example:
1471 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1472 \score { % start of single compound music expression
1473 << % start of simultaneous staves section
1475 \new Staff { % create RH staff
1478 \new Voice { % create voice for RH notes
1479 \relative { % start of RH notes
1485 \new Staff << % create LH staff; needs two simultaneous voices
1488 \new Voice { % create LH voice one
1490 \relative { % start of LH voice one notes
1491 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1492 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1493 } % end of LH voice one notes
1494 } % end of LH voice one
1495 \new Voice { % create LH voice two
1497 \relative { % start of LH voice two notes
1500 } % end of LH voice two notes
1501 } % end of LH voice two
1502 >> % end of LH staff
1503 >> % end of simultaneous staves section
1504 } % end of single compound music expression
1507 (Note how all the statements which open a block with either a
1508 curly bracket, @code{@{}, or double angle brackets, @code{<<},
1509 are indented by two further spaces, and the corresponding
1510 closing bracket is indented by exactly the same amount. While
1511 this is not required, following this practice will greatly
1512 reduce the number of @q{unmatched bracket} errors, and is
1513 strongly recommended. It enables the structure of the music to
1514 be seen at a glance, and any unmatched brackets will be obvious.
1515 Note too how the LH staff is created using double angle brackets
1516 because it requires two voices for its music, whereas the RH staff
1517 is created with a single music expression surrounded by curly
1518 brackets because it requires only one voice.)
1520 @cindex contexts, naming
1521 @cindex naming contexts
1523 The @code{\new} command may also give an identifying name to the
1524 context to distinguish it from other contexts of the same type,
1527 \new @var{type} = @var{id} @var{music-expression}
1530 Note the distinction between the name of the context type,
1531 @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}, etc, and the identifying name of a
1532 particular instance of that type, which can be any sequence of letters
1533 invented by the user. Digits and spaces can also be used in the
1534 identifying name, but then it has to be placed in quotes,
1535 i.e. @code{\new Staff = "MyStaff 1" @var{music-expression}}.
1536 The identifying name is used to
1537 refer back to that particular instance of a context. We saw this in
1538 use in the section on lyrics, see @ref{Voices and vocals}.
1542 Notation Reference: @ruser{Creating and referencing contexts}.
1545 @node Engravers explained
1546 @subsection Engravers explained
1550 Every mark on the printed output of a score produced by LilyPond
1551 is produced by an @code{Engraver}. Thus there is an engraver
1552 to print staves, one to print note heads, one for stems, one for
1553 beams, etc, etc. In total there are over 120 such engravers!
1554 Fortunately, for most scores it is not necessary to know about
1555 more than a few, and for simple scores you do not need to know
1558 Engravers live and operate in Contexts. Engravers such as the
1559 @code{Metronome_mark_engraver}, whose action and output apply to the
1560 score as a whole, operate in the highest level context -- the
1561 @code{Score} context.
1563 The @code{Clef_engraver} and @code{Key_engraver} are to be
1564 found in every @code{Staff} Context, as different staves may require
1565 different clefs and keys.
1567 The @code{Note_heads_engraver} and @code{Stem_engraver} live
1568 in every @code{Voice} context, the lowest level context of all.
1570 Each engraver processes the particular objects associated
1571 with its function, and maintains the properties that relate
1572 to that function. These properties, like the properties
1573 associated with contexts, may be modified to change the
1574 operation of the engraver or the appearance of those elements
1575 in the printed score.
1577 Engravers all have compound names formed from words which
1578 describe their function. Just the first word is capitalized,
1579 and the remainder are joined to it with underscores. Thus
1580 the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver} is responsible for creating the
1581 lines of the staff, the @code{Clef_engraver} determines and sets
1582 the pitch reference point on the staff by drawing a clef symbol.
1584 Here are some of the most common engravers together with their
1585 function. You will see it is usually easy to guess the function
1586 from the name, or vice versa.
1588 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
1591 @item Accidental_engraver
1592 @tab Makes accidentals, cautionary and suggested accidentals
1597 @item Completion_heads_engraver
1598 @tab Splits notes which cross bar lines
1599 @item Dynamic_engraver
1600 @tab Creates hairpins and dynamic texts
1601 @item Forbid_line_break_engraver
1602 @tab Prevents line breaks if a musical element is still active
1604 @tab Creates the key signature
1605 @item Metronome_mark_engraver
1606 @tab Engraves metronome marking
1607 @item Note_heads_engraver
1608 @tab Engraves note heads
1611 @item Staff_symbol_engraver
1612 @tab Engraves the five (by default) lines of the staff
1614 @tab Creates stems and single-stem tremolos
1615 @item Time_signature_engraver
1616 @tab Creates time signatures
1621 We shall see later how the output of LilyPond can be changed
1622 by modifying the action of Engravers.
1626 Internals reference: @rinternals{Engravers and Performers}.
1629 @node Modifying context properties
1630 @subsection Modifying context properties
1632 @cindex context properties
1633 @cindex context properties, modifying
1634 @cindex modifying context properties
1638 Contexts are responsible for holding the values of a number of
1639 context @emph{properties}. Many of them can be changed to
1640 influence the interpretation of the input and so change the
1641 appearance of the output. They are changed by the
1642 @code{\set} command. This takes the form
1645 \set @emph{ContextName}.@emph{propertyName} = #@emph{value}
1648 Where the @emph{ContextName} is usually @code{Score},
1649 @code{Staff} or @code{Voice}. It may be omitted,
1650 in which case the current context (typically @code{Voice}) is assumed.
1652 The names of context properties consist of words joined
1653 together with no hyphens or underscores, all except the
1654 first having a capital letter. Here are a few examples
1655 of some commonly used ones. There are many more.
1657 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
1659 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .15 .45 .15
1660 @headitem propertyName
1666 @tab If true, set extra natural signs before accidentals
1667 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1668 @item currentBarNumber
1670 @tab Set the current bar number
1674 @tab If true, print slurs both above and below notes
1675 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1676 @item instrumentName
1678 @tab Set the name to be placed at the start of the staff
1679 @tab @code{"Cello I"}
1682 @tab Increase or decrease the font size
1686 @tab Set the text to print before the start of a verse
1691 where a Boolean is either True (@code{#t}) or False (@code{#f}),
1692 an Integer is a positive whole number, a Real is a positive
1693 or negative decimal number, and text is enclosed in double
1694 apostrophes. Note the occurrence of hash signs,
1695 (@code{#}), in two different places -- as part of the Boolean
1696 value before the @code{t} or @code{f}, and before @emph{value}
1697 in the @code{\set} statement. So when a Boolean is being
1698 entered you need to code two hash signs, e.g., @code{##t}.
1700 @cindex properties operating in contexts
1701 @cindex setting properties within contexts
1703 Before we can set any of these properties we need to know
1704 in which context they operate. Sometimes this is obvious,
1705 but occasionally it can be tricky. If the wrong context
1706 is specified, no error message is produced, but the expected
1707 action will not take place. For example, the
1708 @code{instrumentName} clearly lives in the @code{Staff} context, since
1709 it is the staff that is to be named.
1710 In this example the first staff is labeled, but not the second,
1711 because we omitted the context name.
1713 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1715 \new Staff \relative {
1716 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
1719 \new Staff \relative {
1720 \set instrumentName = #"Alto" % Wrong!
1726 Remember the default context name is @code{Voice}, so the second
1727 @code{\set} command set the property @code{instrumentName} in the
1728 @code{Voice} context to @qq{Alto}, but as LilyPond does not look
1729 for any such property in the @code{Voice} context, no
1730 further action took place. This is not an error, and no error
1731 message is logged in the log file.
1733 Similarly, if the property name is mis-spelt no error message is
1734 produced, and clearly the expected action cannot be performed. In
1735 fact, you can set any (fictitious) @q{property} using any name you
1736 like in any context that exists by using the @code{\set} command. But
1737 if the name is not known to LilyPond it will not cause any action to
1738 be taken. Some text editors with special support for LilyPond input
1739 files document property names with bullets when you hover them with
1740 the mouse, like JEdit with LilyPondTool, or highlight unknown property
1741 names differently, like ConTEXT. If you do not use an editor with
1742 such features, it is recommended to check the property name in the
1743 Internals Reference: see @rinternals{Tunable context properties}, or
1744 @rinternals{Contexts}.
1746 The @code{instrumentName} property will take effect only
1747 if it is set in the @code{Staff} context, but
1748 some properties can be set in more than one context.
1749 For example, the property @code{extraNatural} is by
1750 default set to ##t (true) for all staves.
1751 If it is set to ##f (false) in one particular @code{Staff}
1752 context it applies just to the accidentals on that staff.
1753 If it is set to false in the @code{Score} context
1754 it applies to all staves.
1756 So this turns off extra naturals in one staff:
1758 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1760 \new Staff \relative {
1763 \new Staff \relative {
1764 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1771 and this turns them off in all staves:
1773 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1775 \new Staff \relative {
1778 \new Staff \relative {
1779 \set Score.extraNatural = ##f
1785 As another example, if @code{clefTransposition} is set in
1786 the @code{Score} context this immediately changes the value
1787 of the transposition in all current staves and sets a new default
1788 value which will be applied to all staves.
1790 The opposite command, @code{\unset}, effectively removes the
1791 property from the context, which causes most properties to
1792 revert to their default value. Usually @code{\unset} is not
1793 required as a new @code{\set} command will achieve what is
1796 The @code{\set} and @code{\unset} commands can appear anywhere
1797 in the input file and will take effect from the time they are
1798 encountered until the end of the score or until the property is
1799 @code{\set} or @code{\unset} again. Let's try changing the
1800 font size, which affects the size of the note heads (among
1801 other things) several times. The change is from the default
1802 value, not the most recently set value.
1804 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1807 % make note heads smaller
1810 % make note heads larger
1811 \set fontSize = #2.5
1813 % return to default size
1819 We have now seen how to set the values of several different types of
1820 property. Note that integers and numbers are always preceded by a
1821 hash sign, @code{#}, while a true or false value is specified by
1822 @code{##t} and @code{##f}, with two hash signs. A text property
1823 should be enclosed in double quotation signs, as above, although we
1824 shall see later that text can actually be specified in a much more
1825 general way by using the very powerful @code{\markup} command.
1827 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\with}
1830 @cindex context properties, setting with \with
1832 The default value of context properties may be set at the time the
1833 context is created. Sometimes this is a clearer way of setting a
1834 property value if it is to remain fixed for the duration of
1835 the context. When a context is created with a @code{\new}
1836 command it may be followed immediately by a @code{\with @{ @dots{} @}}
1837 block in which the default property values are set. For example,
1838 if we wish to suppress the printing of extra naturals for the
1839 duration of a staff we would write:
1842 \new Staff \with @{ extraNatural = ##f @}
1848 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1852 gisis'4 gis aeses aes
1855 \new Staff \with { extraNatural = ##f } {
1857 gisis'4 gis aeses aes
1863 Properties set in this way may still be changed dynamically using
1864 @code{\set} and returned to the default value set in the
1865 @code{\with} block with @code{\unset}.
1867 @cindex fontSize, default and setting
1869 So if the @code{fontSize} property is set in a @code{\with} clause
1870 it sets the default value of the font size. If it is later changed
1871 with @code{\set}, this new default value may be restored with the
1872 @code{\unset fontSize} command.
1874 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\context}
1876 @cindex context properties, setting with \context
1879 The values of context properties may be set in @emph{all} contexts
1880 of a particular type, such as all @code{Staff} contexts, with a single
1881 command. The context type is identified by using its
1882 type name, like @code{Staff}, prefixed by a back-slash: @code{\Staff}.
1883 The statement which sets the property value is the same as that in a
1884 @code{\with} block, introduced above. It is placed in a
1885 @code{\context} block within a @code{\layout} block. Each
1886 @code{\context} block will affect all contexts of the type specified
1887 throughout the @code{\score} or @code{\book} block in which the
1888 @code{\layout} block appears. Here is an example to show the format:
1890 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1906 If the property override is to be applied to all staves
1909 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1914 gisis'4 gis aeses aes
1919 gisis'4 gis aeses aes
1925 \Score extraNatural = ##f
1932 Context properties set in this way may be overridden for particular
1933 instances of contexts by statements in a @code{\with} block, and by
1934 @code{\set} commands embedded in music statements.
1939 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
1940 @ruser{The set command}.
1942 Internals Reference:
1943 @rinternals{Contexts},
1944 @rinternals{Tunable context properties}.
1947 @node Adding and removing engravers
1948 @subsection Adding and removing engravers
1950 @cindex engravers, adding
1951 @cindex adding engravers
1952 @cindex engravers, removing
1953 @cindex removing engravers
1958 We have seen that contexts each contain several engravers, each
1959 of which is responsible for producing a particular part of the
1960 output, like bar lines, staves, note heads, stems, etc. If an
1961 engraver is removed from a context, it can no longer produce its
1962 output. This is a crude way of modifying the output, but it
1963 can sometimes be useful.
1965 @subsubheading Changing a single context
1967 To remove an engraver from a single context we use the
1968 @code{\with} command placed immediately after the context creation
1969 command, as in the previous section.
1971 As an illustration, let's repeat an example from the previous section
1972 with the staff lines removed. Remember that the staff lines are
1973 produced by the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}.
1975 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1977 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
1981 \set fontSize = #-4 % make note heads smaller
1983 \set fontSize = #2.5 % make note heads larger
1985 \unset fontSize % return to default size
1990 @cindex ambitus engraver
1992 Engravers can also be added to individual contexts.
1993 The command to do this is
1995 @code{\consists @var{Engraver_name}},
1998 placed inside a @code{\with} block. Some vocal scores have an ambitus
1999 placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the range of notes in
2000 that staff -- see @rglos{ambitus}. The ambitus is produced by the
2001 @code{Ambitus_engraver}, which is not normally included in any
2002 context. If we add it to the @code{Voice} context, it calculates the
2003 range from that voice only:
2005 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2008 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2025 but if we add the ambitus engraver to the
2026 @code{Staff} context, it calculates the range from all
2027 the notes in all the voices on that staff:
2029 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2031 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2049 @subsubheading Changing all contexts of the same type
2053 The examples above show how to remove or add engravers to
2054 individual contexts. It is also possible to remove or add
2055 engravers to every context of a specific type by placing the
2056 commands in the appropriate context in a @code{\layout}
2057 block. For example, if we wanted to show an ambitus for every
2058 staff in a four-staff score, we could write
2060 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2089 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2096 The values of context properties may also be set
2097 for all contexts of a particular type by including the
2098 @code{\set} command in a @code{\context} block in the
2102 Notation Reference: @ruser{Modifying context plug-ins},
2103 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
2106 The @code{Stem_engraver} and @code{Beam_engraver} attach their
2107 objects to note heads. If the @code{Note_heads_engraver} is removed
2108 no note heads are produced and therefore no stems or beams are created
2112 @node Extending the templates
2113 @section Extending the templates
2115 You've read the tutorial, you know how to write music, you
2116 understand the fundamental concepts. But how can you
2117 get the staves that you want? Well, you can find lots of
2118 templates (see @ref{Templates}) which may give you a start.
2119 But what if you want something that isn't covered there? Read on.
2122 * Soprano and cello::
2123 * Four-part SATB vocal score::
2124 * Building a score from scratch::
2125 * Saving typing with variables and functions::
2126 * Scores and parts::
2129 @node Soprano and cello
2130 @subsection Soprano and cello
2132 @cindex template, modifying
2133 @cindex modifying templates
2135 Start off with the template that seems closest to what you want to
2136 end up with. Let's say that you want to write something for
2137 soprano and cello. In this case, we would start with the
2138 @q{Notes and lyrics} template (for the soprano part).
2141 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2143 melody = \relative @{
2150 text = \lyricmode @{
2156 \new Voice = "one" @{
2160 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
2167 Now we want to add a cello part. Let's look at the @q{Notes only} example:
2170 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2172 melody = \relative @{
2186 We don't need two @code{\version} commands. We'll need the
2187 @code{melody} section. We don't want two @code{\score} sections
2188 -- if we had two @code{\score}s, we'd get the two parts separately.
2189 We want them together, as a duet. Within the @code{\score}
2190 section, we don't need two @code{\layout} or @code{\midi}.
2192 If we simply cut and paste the @code{melody} section, we would
2193 end up with two @code{melody} definitions. This would not generate
2194 an error, but the second one would be used for both melodies.
2195 So let's rename them to make them distinct. We'll call the
2196 section for the soprano @code{sopranoMusic} and the section for
2197 the cello @code{celloMusic}. While we're doing this, let's rename
2198 @code{text} to be @code{sopranoLyrics}. Remember to rename both
2199 instances of all these names -- both the initial definition (the
2200 @code{melody = \relative @{ } part) and the name's use (in the
2201 @code{\score} section).
2203 While we're doing this, let's change the cello part's staff --
2204 celli normally use bass clef. We'll also give the cello some
2208 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2210 sopranoMusic = \relative @{
2217 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode @{
2221 celloMusic = \relative @{
2230 \new Voice = "one" @{
2234 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2241 This is looking promising, but the cello part won't appear in the
2242 score -- we haven't used it in the @code{\score} section. If we
2243 want the cello part to appear under the soprano part, we need to add
2246 \new Staff \celloMusic
2250 underneath the soprano stuff. We also need to add @code{<<} and
2251 @code{>>} around the music -- that tells LilyPond that there's
2252 more than one thing (in this case, two @code{Staves}) happening
2253 at once. The @code{\score} looks like this now:
2255 @c Indentation in this example is deliberately poor
2260 \new Voice = "one" @{
2264 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2266 \new Staff \celloMusic
2274 This looks a bit messy; the indentation is messed up now. That is
2275 easily fixed. Here's the complete soprano and cello template.
2277 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2278 sopranoMusic = \relative {
2285 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode {
2289 celloMusic = \relative {
2299 \new Voice = "one" {
2303 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2305 \new Staff \celloMusic
2314 The starting templates can be found in the @q{Templates} appendix,
2315 see @ref{Single staff templates}.
2318 @node Four-part SATB vocal score
2319 @subsection Four-part SATB vocal score
2321 @cindex template, SATB
2322 @cindex SATB template
2324 Most vocal scores of music written for four-part mixed choir
2325 with orchestral accompaniment such as Mendelssohn's Elijah or
2326 Handel's Messiah have the choral music and words on four
2327 staves, one for each of SATB, with a piano reduction of the
2328 orchestral accompaniment underneath. Here's an example
2329 from Handel's Messiah:
2331 @c The following should appear as music without code
2332 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2333 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2335 sopranoMusic = \relative {
2337 r4 d''2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2339 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2340 Wor -- thy | is the lamb | that was slain |
2343 altoMusic = \relative {
2345 r4 a'2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis e2 |
2347 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2349 tenorMusic = \relative {
2351 r4 fis'2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2353 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2355 bassMusic = \relative {
2357 r4 d'2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2359 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2364 r4 <a' d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2365 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2366 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2372 <d, d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2373 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2374 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2378 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2380 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2381 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2382 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2387 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2390 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2391 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2392 \new Voice = "altos" {
2397 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords }
2398 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2399 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2400 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2405 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords }
2406 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2407 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2408 \new Voice = "basses" {
2413 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2418 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2419 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2420 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2426 @warning{This layout can be achieved very easily using the built-in
2427 template: @code{satb.ly}, see @ref{Built-in templates}. But for ease
2428 of use this template deliberately hides the necessary context
2429 structure, instead providing it automatically. So for purposes of
2430 learning let us see how to build this up from scratch. You may need
2431 to do this if the built-in template does not meet your needs
2434 The nearest copy-and-edit template to this layout is
2435 @ref{SATB vocal score and automatic piano reduction} -- but we need
2436 to change the layout and add a piano
2437 accompaniment which is not derived automatically from the vocal parts.
2438 The variables holding the music and words for the vocal parts are
2439 fine, but we shall need to add variables for the piano reduction.
2441 The order in which the contexts appear in the ChoirStaff of the
2442 template do not correspond with the order in the vocal score shown
2443 above. We need to rearrange them so there are four staves with the
2444 words written directly underneath the notes for each part. All the
2445 voices should be @code{\voiceOne}, which is the default, so the
2446 @code{\voiceXXX} commands should be removed. We also need to specify
2447 the tenor clef for the tenors. The way in which lyrics are specified
2448 in the template has not yet been encountered so we need to use the
2449 method with which we are familiar. We should also add the names of
2452 Doing this gives for our ChoirStaff:
2456 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2457 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2458 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2463 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2466 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2467 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2468 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2473 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2476 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2477 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2478 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2483 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2486 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2487 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2488 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2493 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2499 Next we must work out the piano part. This is
2500 easy - we just pull out the piano part from the
2501 @q{Solo piano} template:
2505 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2506 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2507 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2511 and add the variable definitions for @code{upper}
2514 The ChoirStaff and PianoStaff must be combined
2515 using angle brackets as we want them to be
2516 stacked one above the other:
2519 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff one above the other
2521 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2522 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2527 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2530 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2531 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2536 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2539 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2540 \clef "G_8" % tenor clef
2541 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2546 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2549 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2551 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2556 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2562 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2563 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2564 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2569 Combining all these together and adding the music
2570 for the three bars of the example above gives:
2572 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2573 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2574 sopranoMusic = \relative {
2576 r4 d''2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2578 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2579 Wor -- thy | is the lamb | that was slain |
2581 altoMusic = \relative {
2583 r4 a'2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis fis2 |
2585 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2586 tenorMusic = \relative {
2588 r4 fis'2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2590 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2591 bassMusic = \relative {
2593 r4 d'2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2595 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2599 r4 <a' d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2600 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2601 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2606 <d, d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2607 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2608 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2612 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2614 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2615 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2616 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2621 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2624 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2625 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2626 \new Voice = "altos" {
2631 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" {
2634 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2635 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2636 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2641 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" {
2644 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2645 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2646 \new Voice = "basses" {
2651 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2657 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2658 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2659 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2666 @node Building a score from scratch
2667 @subsection Building a score from scratch
2669 @cindex template, writing your own
2670 @cindex example of writing a score
2671 @cindex writing a score, example
2672 @cindex score, example of writing
2674 After gaining some facility with writing LilyPond code, you
2675 may find that it is easier to build a score from scratch
2676 rather than modifying one of the templates. You can also
2677 develop your own style this way to suit the sort of music you
2678 like. Let's see how to put together the score for an organ
2679 prelude as an example.
2681 We begin with a header section. Here go the title, name
2682 of composer, etc, then come any variable definitions, and
2683 finally the score block. Let's start with these in outline
2684 and fill in the details later.
2686 We'll use the first two bars of Bach's prelude
2687 based on @emph{Jesu, meine Freude} which is written for two
2688 manuals and pedal organ. You can see these two bars of music
2689 at the bottom of this section. The top manual part has two voices,
2690 the lower and pedal organ one each. So we need four
2691 music definitions and one to define the time signature
2695 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2697 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2698 composer = "J S Bach"
2700 keyTime = @{ \key c \minor \time 4/4 @}
2701 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = @{ s1 @}
2702 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2703 ManualTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2704 PedalOrganMusic = @{ s1 @}
2710 For now we've just used a spacer note, @code{s1},
2711 instead of the real music. We'll add that later.
2713 Next let's see what should go in the score block.
2714 We simply mirror the staff structure we want.
2715 Organ music is usually written on three staves,
2716 one for each manual and one for the pedals. The
2717 manual staves should be bracketed together, so we
2718 need to use a PianoStaff for them. The first
2719 manual part needs two voices and the second manual
2724 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2726 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2729 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2731 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2732 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2736 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2737 >> % end PianoStaff context
2740 Next we need to add a staff for the pedal organ.
2741 This goes underneath the PianoStaff, but it must
2742 be simultaneous with it, so we need angle brackets
2743 around the two. Missing these out would generate
2744 an error in the log file. It's a common mistake
2745 which you'll make sooner or later! Try copying
2746 the final example at the end of this section,
2747 remove these angle brackets, and compile it to
2748 see what errors it generates.
2751 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2753 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2755 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2758 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2760 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2761 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2765 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2766 >> % end PianoStaff context
2767 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2775 It is not necessary to use the simultaneous construct
2776 @code{<< @dots{} >>} for the manual two staff and the pedal organ staff,
2777 since they contain only one music expression, but it does no harm,
2778 and always using angle brackets after @code{\new Staff} is a good
2779 habit to cultivate in case there are multiple voices. The opposite
2780 is true for Voices: these should habitually be followed by braces
2781 @code{@{ @dots{} @}} in case your music is coded in several variables
2782 which need to run consecutively.
2784 Let's add this structure to the score block, and adjust the indenting.
2785 We also add the appropriate clefs, ensure stems, ties and slurs in
2786 each voice on the upper staff point to the right direction with
2787 @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo}, and enter the key and time
2788 signature to each staff using our predefined variable, @code{\keyTime}.
2792 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2794 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2795 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2799 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2803 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2805 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2806 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2812 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2813 >> % end PianoStaff context
2814 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2820 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2822 @} % end Score context
2825 @cindex stretchability of staves
2826 @cindex staves, stretchability
2828 The above layout of the organ staves is almost perfect; however,
2829 there is a slight defect which is not visible by looking at just a
2830 single system: The distance of the pedal staff to the left hand staff
2831 should behave approximately the same as the right hand staff to the
2832 left hand staff. In particular, the stretchability of staves in a
2833 @code{PianoStaff} context is limited (so that the distance between
2834 the staves for the left and right hand can't become too large), and
2835 the pedal staff should behave similarly.
2837 @cindex sub-properties
2838 @cindex properties, sub-properties
2839 @cindex graphical objects
2840 @cindex objects, graphical
2843 Stretchability of staves can be controlled with the
2844 @code{staff-staff-spacing} property of the
2845 @code{VerticalAxisGroup} @q{graphical object} (commonly called
2846 @q{grob}s within the lilypond documentation) -- don't worry about
2847 the details right now; this is fully explained later. For the
2848 curious, have a look at @ruser{Overview of modifying properties}.
2849 In this case, we want to modify the @code{stretchability}
2850 sub-property only. Again, for the curious, you can find the
2851 default values for the staff-staff-spacing property
2852 in file @file{scm/define-grobs.scm} by looking up the definition
2853 of the @code{VerticalAxisGroup} grob. The value for
2854 @code{stretchability} is taken from the definition of the
2855 @code{PianoStaff} context (in file @file{ly/engraver-init.ly})
2856 so that the values are identical.
2860 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2862 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2863 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2867 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2871 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2873 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2874 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" \with @{
2875 \override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing.stretchability = 5
2882 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2883 >> % end PianoStaff context
2884 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2890 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2892 @} % end Score context
2894 That completes the structure. Any three-staff organ music
2895 will have a similar structure, although the number of voices
2896 may vary. All that remains now
2897 is to add the music, and combine all the parts together.
2899 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2901 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2902 composer = "J S Bach"
2904 keyTime = { \key c \minor \time 4/4 }
2905 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = \relative {
2909 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = \relative {
2910 ees'16 d ees8~ 16 f ees d c8 d~ d c~ |
2911 8 c4 b8 c8. g16 c b c d |
2913 ManualTwoMusic = \relative {
2914 c'16 b c8~ 16 b c g a8 g~ 16 g aes ees |
2915 f16 ees f d g aes g f ees d ees8~ 16 f ees d |
2917 PedalOrganMusic = \relative {
2918 r8 c16 d ees d ees8~ 16 a, b g c b c8 |
2919 r16 g ees f g f g8 c,2 |
2923 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2925 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2926 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2930 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2934 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2936 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2937 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" \with {
2938 \override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing.stretchability = 5
2945 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2946 >> % end PianoStaff context
2947 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2953 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff context
2955 } % end Score context
2962 @node Saving typing with variables and functions
2963 @subsection Saving typing with variables and functions
2968 By this point, you've seen this kind of thing:
2970 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2971 hornNotes = \relative { c''4 b dis c }
2980 You may even realize that this could be useful in minimalist music:
2982 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2983 fragmentA = \relative { a'4 a8. b16 }
2984 fragmentB = \relative { a'8. gis16 ees4 }
2986 violin = \new Staff {
2987 \fragmentA \fragmentA |
2988 \fragmentB \fragmentA |
2998 However, you can also use these variables (also known as
2999 macros, or user-defined commands) for tweaks:
3001 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3002 dolce = \markup { \italic \bold dolce }
3004 centreText = { \once \override TextScript.self-alignment-X = #CENTER }
3007 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
3010 violin = \relative {
3012 c''4._\dolce b8 a8 g a b |
3014 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e f g d |
3015 c4.\fthenp b8 c4 c-. |
3026 These variables are obviously useful for saving
3027 typing. But they're worth considering even if you
3028 only use them once -- they reduce complexity. Let's
3029 look at the previous example without any
3030 variables. It's a lot harder to read, especially
3034 violin = \relative @{
3036 c''4._\markup @{ \italic \bold dolce @} b8 a8 g a b |
3037 \once \override TextScript.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
3038 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e f g d |
3040 \dynamic f \italic \small @{ 2nd @} \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
3047 So far we've seen static substitution -- when LilyPond
3048 sees @code{\centreText}, it replaces it with the stuff that
3049 we've defined it to be (ie the stuff to the right of
3050 @code{centreText=}).
3052 LilyPond can handle non-static substitution, too (you
3053 can think of these as functions).
3055 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3057 #(define-music-function
3061 \once \override TextScript.padding = #padding
3065 c''4^"piu mosso" b a b
3067 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
3069 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
3073 Using variables is also a good way to reduce work if the
3074 LilyPond input syntax changes (see
3075 @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}). If
3076 you have a single definition (such as @code{\dolce}) for all your
3077 input files (see @ref{Style sheets}), then if the syntax changes, you
3078 only need to update your single @code{\dolce} definition,
3079 instead of making changes throughout every @file{.ly} file.
3082 @node Scores and parts
3083 @subsection Scores and parts
3085 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
3086 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Variables can
3087 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
3088 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
3089 both the part and the full score.
3091 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
3092 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
3093 of a horn/@/bassoon duo
3096 hornNotes = \relative @{
3098 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3103 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
3106 \include "horn-music.ly"
3109 instrument = "Horn in F"
3113 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
3120 \include "horn-music.ly"
3124 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
3125 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
3126 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
3127 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth upwards. Sounding
3128 @code{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the
3129 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
3130 in the following output
3132 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3133 \transpose f c' \relative {
3135 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3139 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
3140 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
3141 rest. It is entered with a capital @code{R} followed by a duration
3142 (@code{1}@tie{}for a whole note, @code{2}@tie{}for a half note,
3143 etc.). By multiplying the
3144 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
3145 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
3151 When printing the part, multi-measure rests must be compressed. There
3152 is a music function available to do this:
3155 \compressMMRests @{ ... @}
3158 Applying this to @code{hornNotes} gives:
3160 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3161 \compressMMRests \transpose f c' \relative {
3164 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3169 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
3170 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
3171 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
3174 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
3175 \include "horn-music.ly"
3178 \new Staff \hornNotes
3179 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
3186 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3192 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3197 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b4 bes |
3198 a8 e f4 | g4 d | gis4 f |
3205 @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}.
3209 @ruser{Writing parts},
3210 @ruser{Full measure rests},
3211 @ruser{Including LilyPond files}.