From: fred Date: Tue, 26 Mar 2002 21:23:23 +0000 (+0000) Subject: lilypond-1.0.2 X-Git-Tag: release/1.5.59~2915 X-Git-Url: https://git.donarmstrong.com/?a=commitdiff_plain;h=729c6c77439087233a0c9915de9981bb6e250afb;p=lilypond.git lilypond-1.0.2 --- diff --git a/Documentation/tex/mudela.yo b/Documentation/tex/mudela.yo deleted file mode 100644 index 87407dfb4b..0000000000 --- a/Documentation/tex/mudela.yo +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2676 +0,0 @@ -COMMENT(-*-text-*-) - -DEFINEMACRO(var)(1)(whenlatex(latexcommand({\normalfont\scshape )ARG1+latexcommand(}))\ - whenhtml(sc(ARG1))) - - - -COMMENT( This document contains Mudela fragments. You need at least -Yodl-1.30.18 to convert this to tex or html. - -TODO - -in stead <-> instead -) - -htmlbodyopt(bgcolor)(white) -htmlcommand() - -latexpackage()(a4wide) -latexlayoutcmds( -%\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc} -\input mudela-book -) - -whenlatex(notableofcontents()) -whentexinfo(notableofcontents()) - -report(Mudela, the Music-Definition Language) - (Han-Wen Nienhuys and Jan Nieuwenhuizen) - (nop()PIPETHROUGH(date "+%B %d, %Y")()()nop()) - -COMMENT( - -* The [ ] look weird - -* paragraphs have too much space. - -) - - -latexcommand(\def\interexample{}) -latexcommand(\def\preexample{\par}) -latexcommand(\def\postexample{\par\medskip}) -latexcommand(\def\file#1{{code(#1)}}) -COMMENT( -latexcommand(\def\texttt#1{\tt #1}) -latexcommand(\def\textbf#1{\bf #1}) -) - -chapter(Tutorial) - -whenhtml( -nsubsect(Disclaimer) -This document is written in url(Yodl)(ftp://pcnov095.win.tue.nl/pub/yodl) -and should foremost produce nice LaTeX() output. -In other formats, such as html, some things will look a bit different, -while other things will be simply left out. -Therefore, the authoritive version of this document is the PostScript version, -produced via LaTeX(). -) - -sect(Introduction) -label(tutorial:introduction) -latexcommand(\parindent2pc) - -If you are reading this, you probably are interested in printing -music. LilyPond is a program that can print music from a -specification that you, the user, supply. Using LilyPond may be a bit -quaint in the beginning, because you have to give that specification -using a em(language). That might not be what you expect if you are -familiar with graphical interfaces. But there are some big -advantages: first, once you master the language, entering music can be -done quite efficiently. Secondly, it is possible to explain exactly -what the meaning of a language is, i.e., the semantics are much -clearer. Thirdly, since the program is not interactive, no tradeoffs -have to be made between processing speed and beauty of the output. - -This chapter is a gentle introduction to Mudela, the language that -instructs LilyPond to typeset music. We will explain Mudela by -presenting a series of examples of Mudela input. The corresponding -output will be shown on the right or below, just as it was produced by -LilyPond. - -We will assume that you more or less understand the basics of music notation. -If you are not familiar with the English terms for music notation, you -should consult bind(Appendix)ref(glossary): it contains a glossary -of musical terms along with translations in some other languages. - -If you want to try the examples given here, you should have look a -look at bind(Section)ref(sec:running-lilypond) first. - -sect(Music copying, music definition and music entry) -label(tutorial:copying-vs-def-vs-entry) - -If you have copied music before, using LilyPond may seem awkward -to you in the beginning. The purpose of LilyPond informally is -explained by the term `music typesetter'. - -This may give the impression that the program is like a drawing tool -and that it lets you control precisely how the music is formatted. -This is not the case: not only does the program print musical symbols, -LilyPond also tries to make esthetic decisions---to be precise, we -programmed her to do what we find nop(pretty.)footnote(We formed our -taste by looking at, and reading all about fine music engraving. Of -course, our taste is also bound by all the accepted rules of common -music notation.) You do not have complete control over what is -happening. Usually that is not a big loss, since good engraving is a -very complex trade. In other words, you don't have control, so you do -not have to worry about what is happening precisely. - -Secondly, we expect you to enter the meaning of the music, not the -sheet music itself. The input to LilyPond is a music definition, -which is something different than notation: notation is a graphical -system. Put more concretely: your input to LilyPond should contain -information like ``a dotted quarter note, pitch nop(d)sups(2).'' -LilyPond will figure out from the musical information that a black -note head with a stem but without flag, fourth staff line, with dot -should be printed. - -When you are copying music by hand from a printed score, you don't have -to know what the score means; you just copy the symbols. With LilyPond -such a thing is not possible. You have to enter the meaning of the -symbols, and this might not always be as easy. On the other hand, once -entered, any piece of music can be played and transposed automatically. - -Finally, in some spots we will cheat a bit when it comes to musical -definition. Mudela has some entry modes that help to make typing -Mudela pleasant. For example, the phrase ``a dotted quarter note, -pitch nop(d)sups(2)'' translates to the following longhand: -verb( -\musicalpitch { 1 2 0 } \duration { 2 1 }) - -This data is what we consider the musical em(definition). Mudela -has a special entry mode where you can conveniently abbreviate this to -`code(d''4.)'. There are some features that also make the quotes and -numbers in `code(d''4.)' superfluous in some cases. - -For those who are curious, the numbers in `code(\musicalpitch { 1 2 0 -})' example mean octave, notename, and accidental respectively. The -numbers in `code(\duration { 2 1 })' are the (negative) logarithm of the -duration (2 is a quarter note, 3 is an eighth note, etc.) and the number -of augmention dots respectively. - -sect(When you know the notes to nop(print)ellipsis()) - -The basic building block of music is the note. You can have LilyPond -print a note by specifying its pitch and duration. The pitch of the -central C is written as code(c'). This is in line with musicological -notation; there this pitch is transcribed as nop(c)sups(1) or c'. A -quarter-note duration is written as code(4). So, to print a quarter -note whose pitch is central C, you enter the following: -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( c'4 ) - - -subsect(Duration) - -The duration of a note is specified as a number: a whole note is -denoted by 1, a half note by 2, a quarter by 4, and so on. If you -want to augment a duration with a dot, simply affix a period to the -number. Here are some random notes to show how it works. - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64 c'2. c'8. c'16 -) - -subsect(Basic pitches) - -The pitch code(c') actually consists of two parts: one part for the -note name, and one for the octave. The letter specifies which note -name to use: note names simply are the letters code(a) to code(g). -The number of apostrophes specifies the octave to use: the central C -is denoted by code(c').footnote(By convention, the A above central C -at concert pitch is the tone that is used to tune instruments. Its -frequency is about 440 Hz.) The C which is an eighth higher (the C in -the ``two-line octave'') is denoted by code(c''): every octave adds a -quote. A note name without quotes designates the pitch below code(c') -(the C in the ``small octave''). If you want to go down even further, -commas should be added, e.g., the C in the ``contra octave'' is -expressed as code(c,,).footnote(The comma is meant to represent a -sunken apostrophe.) - - -This example demonstrates octaves: -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - c,,4 c,4 c4 c'4 c''4 c'''4 -) - -And this example demonstrates notenames: -mudela(center,fragment,verbatim)( - c'4 d'4 e'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 b'4 c''4 -) - -A rest can be entered as a note with the special name code(r), e.g., -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(r4) - -This already gives us enough material to make simple songs. In -bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1) a portion of the traditional song -``Twinkle Twinkle Little Star'' is shown. - -latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h]) - center( -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4 - a''4 a''4 g''2 -) - latexcommand(\caption{Twinkle twinkle little star (version 1)}) - label(fig:twinkle1) - ) -latexcommand(\end{figure}) - - -subsect(Alterations) - -We have so far ignored chromatically altered pitches. The names `a' -to `g' for entering pitches are convenient: they are short, -pronounceable and they resemble the words for pitches in normal -musical vocabulary. - -Enter flats and sharps. In English there is no standard terse word -for C sharp or C flat. For this reason, we implemented a different, -non-English convention for entering altered pitches: a note is made -sharp by adding the suffix `--is' to its name, and flat by adding the -suffix `--es'. For a double sharp another `--is' suffix is added, for -flats another `--es' suffix. The names for the alterations of C are -given in bind(Table)ref(notename-tab). - -latexcommand(\begin{table}[h]) - center( - table(2)(ll)( - row(cell(english)cell(LilyPond)) - rowline() - row(cell(c double flat)cell(ceses)) - row(cell(c flat)cell(ces)) - row(cell(c natural)cell(c)) - row(cell(c sharp)cell(cis)) - row(cell(c double sharp)cell(cisis)) - ) - ) - latexcommand(\caption{Default note names}) - label(notename-tab) -latexcommand(\end{table}) - -Variations on this convention are used in a number of germanic -languages, notably Dutch, German, Swedish, and Norwegian. To be -precise, LilyPond actually defaults to Dutch notenames, with -code(aes), code(aeses), code(ees) and code(eeses) added for -consistency. - -Throughout this document we will continue to use the Dutch names. To make -(Dutch) pronunciation easier, the a-flat and e-flat are contracted to -code(as) and code(es). Similarly, the a double flat and e double flat are -contracted to code(ases) and code(eses). - -If you are not comfortable with these names, you can make your own. -Note names for different languages are included with the example -initialisation files, amongst others English (C sharp is abbreviated -to code(cs)), Italian, Swedish and Norwegian. If you want to use -these names, you should look at bind(Section)ref(subsect:include) for -information on how to use include files. - -sect(Running LilyPond) -label(sec:running-lilypond) - -In the previous section some basic elements of Mudela were presented. -We didn't want to bore you too much with repetitive details, so we -left out some red tape that's needed for a of Mudela in a form that is accepted -by LilyPond. To -be precise, we wrote code(X Y Z), when we really meant -verb(\score { - \melodic { X Y Z } - \paper {} -}) -We will continue to leave out the red tape this, until the time is fit to explain what the -above it means. - - -Because LilyPond uses a language, it is a so called em(batch) -program. -This means, that you use a -text editor (such as code(emacs) or code(vi)) to create an input -file. When you are done editing your input file, you save it, and you -run LilyPond on the file. If Lily finds any errors in your input file -then nop(she)footnote(We're sure that if computer programs could have - gender, LilyPond would be a female computer program. So we will - refer to the program as a she. This gender-bending is not to tease - you, dear reader. We do it in real life as well. In the past two - years LilyPond has become sort of a baby daughter to us, keeping us - awake at night, but also providing us with lots of joy. We hope you do - not mind our little aberration from the traditions of computer-manual - writing.) COMMENT( - The name LilyPond is actually sort of a girl's name. Can you guess which - one ?) -will complain. If everything went well, then she'll generate a file, that -you can process further to view or print. - -Using LilyPond to print or view some music is a four-step procedure. -To get you started we'll run down the full procedure for you once. - -enumerate( -it() -Fire up your favourite editor (if you don't -know any editors, try code(joe silly.ly)), -and key in the example from bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1), with red tape: -verb( -\score { - \melodic { - c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4 - a''4 a''4 g''2 - } - \paper {} -} -) - -Save your file as file(twinkle.ly).footnote(The default extension for Mudela -files is file(.ly).) - -it() -Run LilyPond on your newly created file: enter code(lilypond twinkle). -LilyPond will then print all kinds of mumbo jumbo that can safely be -ignored. You might see something like this: -verb( -GNU LilyPond 0.1.55/FlowerLib 1.1.39 -Parsing ... [/home/hanwen/musix/spacer/init/lily-init.ly[/home/hanwen/ - - ... stuff left out here ... - - ] Documentation/twinkle.ly] -Interpreting music ...[1] (time: 0.04 seconds) -Preprocessing elements... -Calculating column positions ... [2] -Approximated: 1 lines, (with an average of 4.0 columns) -Time: 0.01 seconds -warning: Can not solve this casting problem exactly; revert to Word_wrap -[2]Time: 0.00 seconds - -Postprocessing elements... -TeX output to twinkle.tex ... -) - -All has gone well; there were some warnings but no errors. The run -resulted in output, a TeX file called file(twinkle.tex). - -file(TeX) is usually spelled TeX(). It is a batch program for -typesetting text. It was developed by the great programmer and -scientist Donald Knuth to typeset his famous bookseries em(The Art of -Computer Programming). As you can see, TeX() can be adapted to do a -lot more. whenlatex(In fact, the document that you are reading now was also -produced with TeX().) COMMENT(ugh.) - - -it() - To do something useful with the output you have to run TeX() on it - first. Run the command code(tex twinkle). The output should resemble this: -verb( -This is TeX, Version 3.14159 (C version 6.1) -(twinkle.tex -Babel and hyphenation patterns for american, dutch, loaded. -(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/lilyponddefs.tex -(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/dyndefs.tex) -(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/fetdefs.tex -(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/feta20.tex) -(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/lily-ps-defs.tex))) [1] ) -Output written on twinkle.dvi (1 page, 3084 bytes). -Transcript written on twinkle.log. -) - The human translation is ``everything went OK, the result is one - page long, and I put it in file(twinkle.dvi).'' - -it()The file(twinkle.dvi) file is a description of how a piece of -text looks when it is printed. You can view it, or print it. If you -are using a Unix system equipped with X-Windows, then you can issue -the command file(xdvi twinkle) to view the result. If this is not the -case, consult your local TeX() guru on printing and viewing DVI files. -What is in your window should approximately look like this: -mudela()( -\score { - \melodic { - c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4 - a''4 a''4 g''2 - } - \paper { linewidth = 13.\cm; } -} -) - -it() -If you want to print file(twinkle.dvi), you should invoke the command -code(dvips twinkle). Running this command should generate a -PostScript file called file(twinkle.ps). This file can be printed on -any PostScript compatible printer. You should not use any other -tools: the output from LilyPond contains fragments of PostScript which -will not print correctly if you don't use PostScript. If your printer -doesn't understand PostScript, you should check out GhostScript, a -PostScript emulator. -) - - - -The four-pass procedure sketched above is a bit clumsy. Moreover, the -result is pretty crude: the page does not include prettily printed -titles and if you are unlucky, the margins don't come out well. Jan -Arne Fagertun wrote a tool to take the above steps out of your hands, -make neat margins and print titling. The tool is called file(ly2dvi), -and it should be on your system if you use Lily on a Unix platform. -If you use file(ly2dvi), then you can do verb(ly2dvi twinkle.ly ) in -stead of steps 2 and 3. You will feel the real advantage of using -file(ly2dvi) when you add titling to the music. This is something -that we will discuss in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:titling). - - -COMMENT(This document does not cover all of Mudela. Due to technical details, -the precise working of Mudela is coupled to the innards of LilyPond. -If you really want to know all the details, your best bet would be to -get the sources to LilyPond and read the parser and scanner source. -They are in file(lilypond-x.y.z/lily/parser.yy) and -file(lilypond-x.y.z/lily/lexer.ll).) - - - -sect(Chords) - -Up till now we have only considered music that was rather simple. All -the music had notes going in one direction, from left to right, one -note following the other. You might be wondering if this is all Lily -can do, or whether it is possible to stack notes as well (creating -em(chords)). Rest assured: we designed LilyPond while keeping in mind -that she must be able to handle any notation construct that can be -expressed conveniently. Of course we did not leave out chords. - -In Mudela you can form a chord of several notes by enclosing them in -pointed parentheses, bind(i.e.)bind(langle())bind(and)rangle(). ASCII -doesn't really have these delimiters, so Mudela uses the larger-than -(code(>)) and smaller-than (code(<)) signs instead. For example, a -D-major nop(chord)footnote(Recall what was said in the previous -section about flats and sharps: the word code(fis) means an f sharp.) -can be described by the following fragment: -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - -) - - Chords can be entered in the music in the same places that notes -can. As an example we give a snippet of ``Twinkle Twinkle Little -Star'' in chords. The chords may seem, slightly unconventional, but they -only serve to show how chords work. We've aligned the chords -in the input on their starting beat just to help you reading it. -This layout does not influence the typesetting result in any way. - -mudela(verbatim, fragment)( - c''4 c''4 - - - -) - - - -sect(Shortcuts for duration) - -If you typed the last example into a Mudela file, you will have -noticed that the input has lots of repetitions. You will probably -have made some errors with the right durations and number of -octavation quotes. -To save keystrokes and prevent errors Mudela -has some handy shortcuts. The simplest is the shortcut for -durations. You don't have to type the duration if it -is the same as the last duration entered. This saves a considerable -number of keystrokes, and thus reduces the potential for errors. The -previous example can be reduced to verb( - c''4 c'' - - - -) - - -If you entered this, you probably made some little errors with the -right amount of quotes as well. To remedy this, mudela has another -feature called `relative octaves', which reduces the amount of quotes -needed. If you want to enter large pieces of music em(now) we -recommend you make an excursion to -bind(Section)ref(sec:relativeoctaves) and learn about relative -octaves. - - - -sect(Comments) - -If you want to make some private notes about the Mudela code that you -entered, you can do so by inserting comments into your file. The -contents of these comments are ignored by LilyPond. Mudela has two comment -styles: line comments and block comments. The line comment -is introduced by the percent sign: -verb( - c''4 - c''4 % shouldn't this be a different pitch? -) - -Block comments are enclosed in code(%{) and code(%}). - -verb( - c''4 - %{ - Ludwig van Bavaria's original manuscript has an fffff dynamic sign. - Clearly one can see the onset of paranoid schizophrenia in the - composer from these subtle nuances in his writings. - %} - c''4 -) - - -sect(Adding nuances: articulation and dynamics) - -Having just chords and notes does not give you real music. Real music -has more liveliness to it: music can have articulation, dynamics -(louder and softer), etc. This liveliness has notation, so LilyPond -can print it. We'll start out by explaining how to obtain the -smallest grains of nuance: the articulation of a single note. Articulation -is entered by writing a dash and the name of the desired articulation -mark. You have to add a backslash in front of the name to distinguish -it from the name of a note. mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - c''4-\staccato - c''4-\tenuto ) - -Typing a lot of staccato notes in this syntax will get tedious very -quickly. Therefore, Mudela has some handy abbreviations for -articulation marks such as staccato and tenuto. They are shown in the -following example: - -mudela()( -\score{ \melodic { - \property Voice.textstyle = typewriter - c''4-._"c''4-." s4 - c''4--_"c''4--" s4 - c''4-+_"c''4-+" s4 - c''4-|_"c''4-|" s4 - c''4->_"c''4->" s4 - c''4-^_"c''4-\\^{ }" s4 } - \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm; }}) - - -COMMENT(For a full list of supported articulation instructions, refer to the -chapter on features, bind(Chapter)ref(features).) - -Text and digits for fingering can be entered in the same manner: add a -dash and the text or digit to be printed: -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - c''4-1 g''4-5 c''-"Sul tasto" ) -Currently, the meaning of the -syntax `note-dash-digit/articulation/text' is just ``add a superscript to this -note.'' This is not in line with our goal to em(define) music with -Mudela. We hope that this will be fixed in a future version of the -language. In the meantime you can abuse this: the super- and -subscripts can be forced into up or down position respectively by entering an -a caret (code(^)) or an underscore, code(_) instead of the dash: -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - c'4-^ c'4^^ c'''4-^ c'''4_^ -) - -Dynamic markings are another way to add a nuance to a note. They are -entered by adding the name for the dynamic sign after the note. You -should not enter a dash between the name and the note.footnote(This - is inconsistent. We hope that this will be fixed in a later - version of the language.) -mudela(verbatim,fragment)( - c4 \ff c4 \fp c4 c4 \ppp c4 c4 \sfz -) -COMMENT(UGH) - -sect(Bridging the notes: beams, slurs and ties) - -Up till now most of the typesetting concerned simple fixed symbols -only. Now we turn to variable symbols: symbols that run from one note -to another. In LilyPond terminology, such a symbol is called a -em(spanner). To print a spanner, you have to attach a marker to the -note that begins it and to the one that ends it. - - -The first example of such a symbol is the slur. For the slur, the -start marker is the opening parenthesis. It won't be a surprise that -the stopping marker is the closing parenthesis. -For example: -mudela(fragment,center,verbatim)( c'4( )c'4 ) - -otice that the parentheses should be between the notes.footnote(The -location of the parentheses might be changed in a future version of -the language.) - -It is your job to make sure that each slur that you start also ends. -If it doesn't end, then Bad Things are likely to happen. The slur is -quite flexible: you can nest nop(slurs,)footnote(This is inconsistent when -compared to the syntax for articulation hints. This will probably be -fixed soon.) and you can connect a note with a slur on both the left and the -right side: - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - c'4(( )c''4 )c'4( )g'4 -) - -Another spanner is the beam (see bind(Figure)ref(mud:beam)). It -indicates the duration of the connected notes, and thus it acts like an -extended version of the flag. Secondly, the pattern of -left/right-pointing beams hints at the metric structure of the -measure. - - -latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h]) - center( - mudela(fragment)([c'8 c'8] [c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16] [c'16. c'32 c'32 c'16.] ) - latexcommand(\caption{Some beams}) - label(mud:beam) - ) -latexcommand(\end{figure}) - - -Strictly speaking, a beam is not a musical concept. The pattern of a -beam can be derived from the structure of the time signature and the durations -of the notes. It is merely a device that helps you understand the -rhythms notated. Unfortunately, LilyPond is not smart enough to insert -beams into your music on her own. You will have to instruct her by -marking the starting and stopping point of the beam with `code([)' and -`code(])' respectively, e.g. - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - [g'8 g'8] -) - -LilyPond has code that guesses what the pattern should look like, so -that you don't have to specify the beaming for complicated -patterns.footnote(Unfortunately the algorithm used is not foolproof yet: - code([c8. c32 c32]) will produce incorrect results.) - -Again, it is your responsibility to make sure that you end every beam -that you start. - -A third spanner is similar to the slur: the tie. The tie looks like a -slur, but a slur connects whole chords, whereas the tie connects -note heads. Tied notes should be played as one long note. -In analogy with TeX()'s tie (which ties together words with a -space), LilyPond's tie is entered as a tilde, ~. -mudela(verbatim,center,fragment)(c''1 ~ c''4) - -The input convention for the tilde is somewhat peculiar when used in -conjunction with chords. Internally, the extra information that is -represented by the tilde has to be attached to a note (or to a rest, -for that matter). For this reason, you can't put the tilde between -two chords (as in code( ~ )). The tilde sign must be -directly after a note of the chords. It does not matter which -one. The following example demonstrates this: -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - -) - -sect(Commands) -label(sec:commands) - -Up till now, we only printed notes, and correspondingly only entered -notes. But notation contains many other constructs, constructs that -help you with reading those notes. Examples of such constructs are -clefs, time signatures, keys etc. - -If you look carefully at the example in -bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1), you will notice that the output -includes some bar lines and clefs, and that there are no references to -those in the input. They were generated automatically. - -Not all such hints can be inserted automatically, and you can also -override some of the settings. This can be done by inserting various -commands between the music. The general form of these commands is -center( - em(keyword) sc(arguments) -) - -em(keyword)s are words that have a special meaning to the parser of -Mudela. Because the parser must be able to distinguish the keywords -from note names, they have to be preceded by a so-called escape -character, the backslash, `code(\)'. To separate the arguments from -any notes that might follow the arguments, you have to end your -command with a semicolon. An added benefit of this construction is -that the commands stand out between your notes, because of the -backslashes. - -So the general form actually is `code(\keyword argument argument ... ;)' -Let us review these commands: - -description( -dit(code(\clef) var(clefname)) This command sets the current clef for notation, - i.e., a clef symbol is printed and the notes following this command - are shifted vertically. The argument is a string, the name of the - new clef. The default clef is the treble clef. - mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - \clef "bass"; c'4 - \clef "treble"; c'4 - \clef "alto"; c'4 - ) -dit(code(\key) var(pitch)) This command changes the current key signature. The - key signature is printed at the start of every line. The argument - is the name of the corresponding major key. The key of C-minor can - thus be specified as `code(\key es)'. - -dit(code(\accidentals) var(pitchlist)) - -This command changes the current key signature. The signature is -given in the form of a list of accidentals, which can be useful for -unconventional keys. The key of C-minor can be specified as -`code(\accidentals bes es as)'. The command `code(\accidentals fis es -bis)' provides a more exotic example. - - -dit(code(\time) var(numerator)code(/)var(denominator)) - This command chages the current time signature. LilyPond uses the - time signature to - calculate where to place the bars that start a measure. These bars - in turn are the places where a system can be broken into lines. - - The default value for this time signature is common time (4/4). You - can also tell this from the Twinkle ``Twinkle Little -Star'' example in bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1). This -song actually has a 2/4 time signature, so a metrically more correct - version would start with as follows: - mudela(fragment,center,verbatim)( - \time 2/4; c'4 c' g' g' - ) - - -dit(code(\cadenza) var(togglevalue)) When typesetting music without a -regular meter (such as an ad libitum cadenza), no bar lines should be -printed. In LilyPond you can achieve this by issuing the command -`code(\cadenza 1)': it turns off the automatically -generated bar lines. - -You switch them on again with `code(\cadenza 0)', and then a bar line -is printed. LilyPond will act as if you are again at the start of a -measure. - -dit(code(\bar) var(bartype)) - This command lets you print special bar lines, such as repeats. You - can also use it to allow line breaks when entering cadenzas. The - argument var(bartype) is a string that describes what kind of bar line to print. - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - \bar "|:"; c'4 \bar ":|:"; c'4 \bar ":|"; c'4 \bar "||"; - c'4 \bar "empty"; c'4 \bar "|."; -) - The command `code(\bar "empty")' does not create any visible bar - line, but it does tells LilyPond to allow a linebreak - at that position. - -dit(code(\partial) var(duration)) some music starts with a measure that -isn't fully filled, a so-called upstep. The code(\partial) command -allows you to make -upsteps. The argument is a duration similar to the duration of a note. -Example: - mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - \time 4/4; - \partial 4; - [d'8 dis'] e' c''4 e'8 c''4 - ) - - dit(code(\grouping) var(durationslist)) sets the metric structure of the measure. - Its effect can best be shown by an example: - mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - \time 5/16; - \grouping 16*3 16*2; - [c'8 c'16 c'8] - \grouping 16*2 16*3; - [c'8 c'16 c'8] - \grouping 16*5 ; - [c'8 c'16 c'8] - ) - -In practice, you won't be needing this command very often: the -grouping is switched automatically when you issue a code(\time) -command. It is set to a combination of groups -of 2 and 3 beats, with as many groups of -3 as possible (in other words: 4/4 is divided in two times two beats -(2+2), 8/8 in 3+3+2) -) - -The commands that are described above aren't really music, but they -can be used in the same places as notes. This makes the grammar of the -language simpler. It is possible to put a command into a chord. -For example, the following two snippets of Mudela produce identical output. -verb( - - \time 2/4; -) - - - -sect(Complex music: more than one staff) -label(tutorial:more-staffs) - - -Now we explain how to typeset music that runs in multiple staffs. -Consider the following---somewhat unrealistic---example: - -mudela(fragment)( - \type GrandStaff -) - - The music consists of two notes. Perhaps this is sheet music for a -piano player, and one note is meant to be played with the left hand, -and the other with the right hand. That music would sound the same if -it were written as a single chord on a single staff, i.e., -mudela(fragment)( - -) - - -This is another example where we can see that there can be a difference -between a musical idea, and the way it is expressed in notation. - -The Mudela construct for multiple staffs reflects the similarity -between the two examples: to get multiple staffs in Mudela you enter a -chord, with an additional instruction to tell LilyPond that the chord -does not represent notes stacked together, but staffs stacked -together. - -If a piece of music is to be interpreted as a staff, then this can be -expressed with the code(\type) construct. The following input says -``the quarter note with pitch e should be put on a staff.'' - -verb( - \type Staff e'4 -) - -The same can be done for the other note, i.e., - -verb( - \type Staff g4 -) - -If you want to stack these staffs, you must create a chord of both: - -verb( - < \type Staff e'4 - \type Staff g4 - > -) - -This looks reasonable, but the effect of this input is not what you -might expect (try it!). When interpreting this chord LilyPond will -start with the first entry. She'll look for a (nameless) staff. Such a -staff is not found, so it is created. On this staff the code(e) note -is put. When the second code(\type) entry is read, LilyPond will -start looking for a nameless staff. The staff that contains the -code(e) is found, and the code(g) is put there as well. - -The correct solution is to label both code(\type) constructs with -different names, for example code(trebleStaff) and code(bassStaff). -This makes LilyPond distinguish between them, and create two staffs: - -mudela(verbatim,fragment)( - < \type Staff = trebleStaff e'4 - \type Staff = bassStaff g4 - > -) - -The names that you choose do not matter just as long as they are -different. This is almost right, except for the brace at the left and -the clef of the second staff. The bass clef will be taken care of in -the next chapter. If you want a brace, then you have to tell LilyPond -that the chord you just formed is to be interpreted as a so-called -grand staff. This is also done with the code(\type) command. -mudela(verbatim,fragment)( - \type GrandStaff < - \type Staff = treblestaff e'4 - \type Staff = bassstaff g4 - > -) - -sect(Appending instead of stacking: sequential music) -label(tutorial:voice) - -The previous section dealt with a pretty hypothetical situation: sheet -music with two staffs and each staff containing only one single note. -In real-life situations staffs contain more than one note. They -contain music that has to be played in sequence. A staff can contain -a em(voice). We haven't learned how to make a voice yet: we need a -new construct to express this notion of `voice'. - -The construct is called em(sequential) music. A list of musical -objects (e.g., notes, chords or commands) can be made into sequential -music by enclosing the list in braces; for example: - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - { c'4 c'4 } -) -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - { } -) - - -We could have called this construct more colloquially `voice', but -this would cause confusion later on, when a second kind of voice -enters the scene. Similar confusion might arise from the word -`chord', therefore from now on, we will talk about `simultaneous -music', when we refer to items enclosed in < and >. - - -The notion of a em(new) construct needs some explanation: we have been -using sequential music all the time, except that it was hidden in the -red tape in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:introduction). - - - -If we want to put whole voices onto a staff, then we have to -substitute sequential music for the single notes in the example from -the previous section. A code(\clef) command in the second piece of -sequential -music will also set the clef in -the bass staff. -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - \type GrandStaff < - \type Staff = treblestaff { e'4 f'} - \type Staff = bassstaff {\clef "bass"; g a } - > -) - -COMMENT(You can nest simultaneous music and chords in any way you want. If -you are interested in the entire story, you should consult -bind(Chapter)ref(chap:features), which has a grammar in -bind(Section)ref(sec:grammar).) - -sect(Notation context) - -This section is about translation contexts, a topic of LilyPond that -is somewhat advanced. You don't have to understand this to use -LilyPond to print simple music. If you don't want to typeset fancy -polyphonic music or tweak the LilyPond notation engine, you can skip -the next two sections. - -In bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs) it was explained, that there -are more ways to notate a simple chord: as a single voice on a single -staff or in multiple staffs (and we'll soon see, that you can typeset -it as multiple voices on a staff). Obviously the concept of staff is not -really something musical. But what is it then? - - -The most simplistic explanation is: a staff is a peculiarity of the -notation system. In other words, a staff is a graphic device, a -special picture of five lines on which one can print note heads. To -avoid confusion, we will call this view on the concept of staff -`staff symbol' from now on. - - -There is more to it than meets the eye and mind. A staff -contains---besides a staff symbol--- some more components: -itemize( -it()A staff can a have a key signature (printed at the left) -it()A staff has bar lines -it()A staff has a clef (printed at the left) -) -To explain what a staff really is, we'll try to print music without -these components. If these components aren't printed, it is still -possible to print music: -mudela()(\score{ -\melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 } -\paper { - linewidth = -1.; - Staff = \translator { - \type "Line_group_engraver_group"; - - defaultclef = violin; - - \consists "Timing_engraver"; - \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"; - - \accepts "Voice"; - } - } -}) - -As you can see, one can still make out the general form of the melody -and the rhythm that is to be played, but the notation is difficult to -read and the musical information is not complete. The stress pattern -in the notes can't be deduced from this output. For this, we need a -time signature: - -mudela()( -\score { - \melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 } - \paper{ - linewidth = -1.; - Staff = \translator { - \type "Line_group_engraver_group"; - defaultclef = violin; - \consists "Time_signature_engraver"; - \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"; - \accepts "Voice"; - } - } -}) - -Technically speaking you know where the strong and weak beats are, but -it is difficult to find them quickly. Bar lines help you in finding -the location within the measure of the notes: -mudela()( -\score { - \melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 } - \paper{ - linewidth = -1.; - Staff = \translator { - \type "Line_group_engraver_group"; - defaultclef = violin; - \consists "Bar_engraver"; - \consists "Time_signature_engraver"; - \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"; - \accepts "Voice"; - } - } -}) - -We can remedy part of the difficulties with reading pitches by adding a staff -symbol: - -mudela()(\score{ - \melodic\relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 -a'4 f4 e c d2 } \paper { - linewidth = -1.; - Staff = \translator { - \type "Line_group_engraver_group"; - - defaultclef = violin; - \consists "Bar_engraver"; - \consists "Time_signature_engraver"; - \consists "Staff_sym_engraver"; - \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"; - - \accepts "Voice"; - } - } -}) - -This makes the output decidedly easier to read, but you still don't -know what the pitches of the notes above are. So this is still not -enough. But suppose you see the following notation: -mudela()(\score { - \melodic \relative c' {\clef alto; \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 } -\paper { - linewidth = -1.; - Staff = \translator { - \type "Line_group_engraver_group"; - - defaultclef = violin; - \consists "Bar_engraver"; - \consists "Time_signature_engraver"; - \consists "Clef_engraver"; - \consists "Staff_sym_engraver"; - \consists "Timing_engraver"; - \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"; - - \accepts "Voice"; - } - } -}) - -Now you know the pitch of the notes: you look at the start of the line -and see a clef, with this clef, you can determine the notated pitches. -You have found the em(context) in which the notation is to be -interpreted! - -So the context determines the relationship between a piece of music -and its notation: you, the reader, use context to deduce music from -notation. Because LilyPond is a notation ``writer'' instead of a -reader, context works the other way around for Lily: with context a -piece of music can be converted to notation. -The components of a staff form context, and context is needed to read -and write notation. This motivates the following definition. - -quote( -A bf(notation context) is a conversion from music to notation. -) - -The example focused mainly on on staffs, but a staff is not the only -type of notation context. Notation contexts may be nested: you can -print polyphonic music by putting multiple `Voice' contexts in one -`Staff' context. The arguments of the code(\type) command (Staff, -GrandStaff) were in fact all names of different contexts. -The notions of ``current clef'' and ``current position within the -measure'' are all properties of notation contexts. Commands like -code(\clef) and code(\cadenza) change these properties. - - -The following is a list of the contexts that are supported by -LilyPond: -description( - -dit(Voice) The code(Voice) context is a context that corresponds to a - voice on a staff. This context handles the conversion of noteheads, - dynamic signs, stems, beams, super- and subscripts, slurs, ties and rests - -dit(Staff) The code(Staff) context handles clefs, bar lines, keys, - accidentals. A code(Staff) context can contain multiple code(Voice) - contexts. - -dit(RhythmicStaff) The code(RhythmicStaff) context is like the staff, - but much simpler: the notes are printed on one line, and pitches are - ignored. code(RhythmicStaff) can contain code(Voice) contexts. - -dit(GrandStaff) A code(GrandStaff) context contains code(Staff) - contexts, and it adds a brace to the output at the - nop(left.)footnote(This is a major deficiency in the current - implementation. Currently stems, - slurs and beams cannot be printed across two staffs. -In reality, a grand staff is a hybrid of one big staff and two stacked staffs.) - - A code(GrandStaff) context can contain multiple - code(Staff)s. Typically, it will contain two code(Staff)s, one - treble staff, and one bass staff. The bar lines of the contained - staffs are connected vertically. - -dit(StaffGroup) A code(StaffGroup) context contains code(Staff) or - code(Lyrics) contexts, and prints a bracket at the left. The bar - lines in the participating staffs are connected. - -dit(Lyrics) As its name suggests, The code(Lyrics) context deals with - typesetting lyrics. This topic will be covered in - bind(Section)ref(tutorial:lyrics). - -dit(Score) The code(Score) context is the toplevel context: no context can - contain a code(Score) context. The code(Score) context handles the - administration of time signatures. It also makes sure that items - such as clefs, time signatures, and key-signatures are aligned across staffs. - - The code(Score) can contain code(Staff), code(StaffGroup), code(Lyrics), code(GrandStaff) and - code(RhythmicStaff) contexts. - -COMMENT(do ChoireStaff) -) - - - Later on, in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:engravers) we will -explain how you can create your own contexts. - -If you are familiar with structured documents (like HTML, SGML or -LaTeX()), you might see the analogy of a context with a stylesheet: a -stylesheet is neither presentation nor information, but rather a -recipe em(how) a specific piece of information should be presented. -Analogously, a notation context is neither music nor notation, but the -conversion between the two. The big difference with text is that in -music notation the elements provided by context are essential to -understanding what is notated. - - - -sect(Polyphonic music (or: Notation context properties)) - -In the last section we explained that a notation context can have -properties that influence the conversion from music to notation. A -simple example of such a property is the clef: the type of clef partially -determines the vertical position of note heads in a staff. Some of -these properties can be modified by commands such as code(\clef) and -code(\time). But there is more: notation contexts also have -properties are settable in a generic fashion. We will demonstrate -this feature by printing multiple voices on a staff. - -In polyphonic (keyboard) music and orchestral scores often more than -one voice is printed on one staff. We'll explain how to achieve this -effect with LilyPond. The effect is not unlike the two stacked staffs -from bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs), except that we don't want -to stack staffs but voices. Thus, the general template is the following: -verb( - \type Staff < - \type Voice = one ... - \type Voice = two ... - > -) - -On the ellipsis there should be music going from left to right, in -otherr words, there should be sequential music, notes enclosed in -braces. Let us try the following simple melodies: - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -\type "Staff" < - \type "Voice" = "one" { r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 } - \type "Voice" = "two" { g'2 f'4 e'4 } ->) - -As you can see the result is not quite perfect. The notes on the last -two beats look like plain chords and not like separate voices. What -really happened was that the stems of the upper and lower voices were -printed on top of each other. If you have tried running this example, you will probably -have noticed a complaint about ``too many -clashing notecolumns'' during the LilyPond run. -This complaint refers to the overlapping stems. - -To remedy this, engravers traditionally make the stems of the upper -and lower voice point in different directions: the stems of the lower -voice point down, and the stems of the upper up, as shown in -bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig). - -Surely the direction of a single stem is a property of the stem as a -graphical object. But the fact that all of the stems in a voice point -in the same direction is not directly graphical. Since this is a -property shared by all the stems in the voice, it is logical to -consider this property to be a property of the context code(Voice). -And this is how it's done in LilyPond: the context code(Voice) has an -attribute whose value is the direction to use -for stems. You can change it to `up' -by issuing the following phrase:footnote(The name code(ydirection) is -no mistake. The property also controls the up/down directions of -super-/subscripts, slurs, ties, etc.) - -verb( - \property "Voice"."ydirection" = "1" -) - -This command should be read as ``change the property called -code(ydirection) within the current code(Voice) context to the value -code(-1).'' For the property code(ydirection) the value code(1) means -`up', and code(-1) means `down'. The proper way to code the -polyphonic example is given in bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig). - -latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h]) -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - \type "Staff" < - \type "Voice" = "one" { - \property Voice.ydirection = "1" - r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 } - \type "Voice" = "two" { - \property Voice.ydirection = "-1" - g'2 f'4 e'4 } - > -) - latexcommand(\caption{multiple voices}) - label(tutorial:multi-voice-fig) -latexcommand(\end{figure}) - -Other properties can also be set, and they can be within different -contexts. In general, you can set a property by specifying -code(\property) var(contexttype)code(.)var(propertyname) code(=) -var(value). Both var(ContextType), var(PropertyName) and var(Value) -should be strings. - -The effect of a property is pretty much hardwired into the -implementation (and thus subject to change), so we will not deal with -all the possible properties in detail. Among other characteristics that -can be set are the layout of slurs and beams. The initialisation file -file(property.ly) explains most properties. - -We conclude this section with another example of a context property. -Polyphonic music that has three or four voices can't be printed by -simply changing the directions of the stems for each voice, obviously. -Traditionally, some chords are shifted horizontally to print if this many -voices have to be printed. -LilyPond can also do this, and the property that controls the -horizontal shifting is called code(hshift). The notes in a -code(Voice) context that has code(hshift) set to a true value (i.e., -non-zero or non-empty), will be shifted horizontally in the case of a -collision. The following example demonstrates the effect. - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - \type "Staff" < - \type "Voice" = "one" { - \property Voice.ydirection = "1" - r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 } - \type "Voice" = "two" { - \property Voice.ydirection = "1" - \property Voice.hshift = 1 - g'2 f'4 e'4 } - \type "Voice" = "three" { - \property Voice.ydirection = "-1" - [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4 - } - > -) - -sect(Lyrics) -label(tutorial:lyrics) - -Now for something completely different: Lyrics. Lyrics are also -considered to be music, although a lyric by itself does not have any -pitch. Producing lyrics has two aspects. First, you have to enter the -text, i.e., the syllables along with their durations. -After this, you have to specify how to convert these to graphics. - -Lyrics consist of syllables, which are strings together with -durations. Previously we only entered note names, so for entering -lyrics we have to instruct LilyPond that what we enter are not note -names but words---or rather: strings. This instruction is the keyword -code(\lyric). After entering this keyword you can enter a musical -construct---sequential music, simultaneous music, code(\type) -entries, etc.--- but with syllables in stead of pitches. For example: -verb( \lyric { 'got8 me on my knees4, Le-8 lie! }) - -The effect of code(\lyric) can be compared with the effect of the -doublequote character, code("), for it also changes the lexical -meaning of spaces and characters. This mode is another example of a -handy input feature of the language. - -Next comes the conversion to notation. LilyPond can't (yet) figure -out that lyrics need different treatment than notes. As a result, the -default conversion will try to put the text you entered as note heads -onto a staff, and this will fail. This default must be overriden with -a code(\type) keyword. Printing syllables of text in a line is done -by a context called code(Lyrics). You can select this context with -the code(\type) keyword. Here is a simple example: - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got8 me on my knees,4 Le-8 lie! }) - -The result is technically more or less correct, but without a melody it -just doesn't work, so let's add a blob of cream: -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - < - \type Staff { c''8. c''16 bes'8. a'16 g'4 f'8 g'4. } - \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got8. me16 on8. my16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4. } - > -) - -The strings that makes up each syllable in the lyrics block are passed -along to TeX() verbatim, so if you are proficient with TeX() you can -do various nifty things. Just keep in mind that a syllable either -starts with a letter (a character in the range `code(a)' to `code(z)' -or `code(A)' to `code(Z)'), or it is a string enclosed quotes. It ends -with either a number for the duration, or a space. A last feature -that should be mentioned is the space-lyric: if you want to enter -a single ``syllable'' that consists of multiple words, i.e., words -separated by spaces, you should use an -underscore instead of a space. All these tricks are demonstrated in -the following example: - -COMMENT( urg -\type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_m\textbf{e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.} -\type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_m{\bf e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.} -) - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)(< - \type Staff { c''8. c''16 bes'8. a'16 g'4 f'8 g'4. } - \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_me4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 "3s,"4 Le-8 lie!4.} -> -) - -The spacing in the above example is a bit skewed because Lily can't -tell that the long syllables you entered are not ordinary characters, -but expand to really small symbols. - - - - -COMMENT(Rood is de kleur van geluk.) -COMMENT(Dat geldt ook voor haar.) - - -sect(Toplevel Mudela) - -Now the time has come to unravel the red tape that we have hidden from -you in the introduction. Mudela has a hierarchical structure for we -have seen that sequential and simultaneous music can be nested. -Mudela also has other `blocks' that can be nested. The general syntax -for a block is code(\keyword { ... }). - -When you run LilyPond, what happens is that you define music, and -specify one (or more) conversions to apply to that music, for example -a conversion to notation. This is done by putting the definition of -the music and the definition of the conversion together in a -code(\score) block, e.g., -verb( -\score { - % ... music ... - \paper {} -}) - -This is almost the context that should be around all -of the previous examples. The precise context reads thus: -verb( -\score { - \melodic { ... } - \paper {} -}) -On the ellipsis, you entered what shown as the example input. -You can see that in the -above example, the code(\melodic { ... }) forms the music, the -code(\paper {}) is a conversion to paper (notation, that is). The -code(\paper) definition is copied from a default definition -(which is in the initialisation file file(paper16.ly)). -The paper part also contains -the definition of the contexts. - -The keyword code(\melodic) is analogous to the code(\lyric) keyword. It -will switch the tokenizer into a mode that interprets plain words as -note names. If it can't recognize the words as a note name, it will -assume that they are strings. That is the reason why you can write -code(\clef bass) in stead of code(\clef "bass"); most of the strings -in code(\melodic) mode can be written without quotes. - -The braces that you see after the code(\melodic) keyword are the -braces that are around sequential music. Because of these braces, the -sequences of notes in our simple examples were sequential (and not -simultaneous). As a result the notes were printed from left to right, -and not stacked. - -sect(Identifiers) - - -Now that we are comfortable with the toplevel entries in a mudela -file, we can investigate some more of the recreations on toplevel, in -particular em(identifiers). Generally you can define an identifier by -entering code(identifierName = ... ) -where there can be a variety of things on the ellipsis. - -Here is a (partial) list of what you can abbreviate with identifiers -at top-level. -itemize( -it()The code(\score) block -it()The code(\paper) block -it()The code(\midi) block (to be explained in - bind(Section)ref(tutorial:sound)) -it()Music (sequential music, simultaneous music etc.) -it()Durations -it()Strings -it()Translators (to be explained in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:engravers)) -it()Integers -it()Reals -) - -When you refer -to the abbreviated entity, you must precede code(identifierName) -with a backslash, i.e., code(\identifierName). For example: -mudela(verbatim)( - czerny = \melodic { [c16 g e g] } - \score { - \melodic \type GrandStaff < - { c''2 g''2 } - { \clef bass; \czerny \czerny \czerny \czerny} - > - \paper { - linewidth = -1.0; - stem_length = 12.0*\internote; - } - } -) - - - -Another interesting feature of this example are the assignments within -the paper block. Some blocks, such as code(\paper), have a scope of -their own. In the case of the code(\paper) block, these variables -influence the characteristics of the output. As is shown, you can -tune quantities like the stemlength, and enter simple expressions. -The purpose of the negative linewidth is to prevent the music from -being justified. The identifiers that are meaningful are for the -paper block is strongly implementation dependent, so they will not be -listed here. Moreover, since most of the values are predefined to -sensible defaults, there usually is no need to tune these values. - -Recall the properties of a context, that could be set with -code(\property). It is a very general mechanism to tune the output of -the music, that is neatly separated from the real music. -Unfortunately, it is not convenient to type or read, and the precise -effect of a setting property isn't always apparent from its -definition. To remedy this, we can use an identifier to capture the -meaning of a code(\property). - -mudela(verbatim)( -stemup = \property Voice.ydirection = "1" -stemdown = \property Voice.ydirection = "-1" -shift = \property Voice.hshift = "1" -\score { - \type "Staff" \melodic < - \type "Voice" = "one" { - \stemup - r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 } - \type "Voice" = "two" { - \stemup - \shift - g'2 f'4 e'4 } - \type "Voice" = "three" { - \stemdown - [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4 - } - > - \paper{ linewidth = -1.0\pt; } -} -) - -Several abbreviations like code(\stemup) are defined in the -standard initialisation file file(property.ly). Setting or changing -context properties can have a similar effect as the commands that were -discussed in bind(Section)ref(sec:commands). Don't be fooled by the -similarity in appearance between a declared property-setting entry -and a real command. Real commands are hardcoded into the language -and they have to be terminated by semicolons. - -You can also use identifiers to break up the heavy nesting that can occur -in the code(\score) block. Another useful application is -parametrisation of the music: if you use identifiers in the -code(\score) block, you can make variations of the music by simply -redefining those identifiers. One particular application of this is -part extraction: by using identifiers and redefining them, one can -print extracted parts and a full orchestral score from the same -music definition. - - - -sect(Sound output) -label(tutorial:sound) - -You get output by combining music with definition a conversion to -output. Up till now we have only focused on the graphic output of -traditional engraving. But there is no reason why that should be the -only form of output for music. LilyPond currently supports one other -conversion: the conversion from abstract music to sound. You can have -LilyPond play the music that you entered. The format that is used -for this output is MIDI. - -The only information that you need to enter is the - nop(tempo)footnote(Unfortunately, -this the only thing that can be tuned at this -time. This is a limitation: the tempo of music can vary throughout -the music.) for the performance. The syntax for the tempo is -code(\tempo )var(duration) = var(beatsperminute);), for example: -verb( -\score { - ...music... - \midi { \tempo 4 = 76; } -} -) - -The most useful purpose of this sound output is to prooflisten your -files: typing errors (especially if they involve accidentals) stand -out when you listen. -The output was implemented in a very rudimentary manner, so it is -probably not worth listening to for any other reason. - - -sect(Contexts revisited: engravers) -label(tutorial:engravers) - -As was promised, we will now take a dive into the more wizardrous parts -of LilyPond: redefining (notation) contexts. We previously explained -that a context -itemize( -it()is a conversion from music to notation, -it()can contain other contexts -it()handles specific notation constructs -) - -This characterization almost automatically explains what the definition of a -context should look like: -itemize( -it()It should be part of the ``notation output definition,'' i.e., the - code(\paper) block -it() - It should contain a specification of what other contexts may be contained - in the context we're defining. -it() - It should contain a list of the notation constructs to be - handled. -) - -In practice, the context definition -looks like this: -verb( -\translator -{ - \type "Engraver_group_engraver"; - \accepts "..."; - \accepts "..."; - \accepts "..."; - - \consists " ... "; - \consists " ... "; - \consists " ... "; - - propertyname = "value"; - propertyname = "value"; - -} ) - - This is encoded by the - -The code(\translator) keyword opens the block for translation (or -context) definition. The code(\type) keyword explains to Lily that -the context should be formed by taking an (empty) instance of -code(Engraver_group_engraver). The code(Engraver_group_engraver) is a -C++ class from the source code to Lily. The code(\accepts) entries -explain what kind of contexts this context could contain. If we were -to define a context for a staff, the definition would typically -contain code(\accepts "Voice";). - -The code(\consists) entries specify which notation constructs should -be handled. This needs a little explanation: LilyPond contains the -code for quite a large number of basic building blocks for notation -generation, and each building block handles only one notation -construct. The name of such a building block is `engraver'. You can -specify which notation construct a context should handle by specifying -which engravers should be part of the context. The code(\consists -"Foobar") entry really means ``add an instance of code(Foobar) to the -translation group.'' - - -For example if this context should print time signatures, the definition -should include `code(\consists "Time_signature_engraver";)'. Again -code(Time_signature_engraver) is a class from the source code of LilyPond. - - - -Finally, one can pre-set some properties in a context definition. - -As a practical example, we will show you how to typeset polymetric -music, i.e., music where the meter can differ for each staff. The -solution is not very complicated: normally all timing information -(time signature, rhythmic grouping) is synchronised across each staff. In -LilyPond this is expressed by having only one registration for timing -information for all staffs. To be precise, there is only one -code(Timing_engraver), and it is located in the top level context, the -code(Score) context. - -All staffs use the information in the global code(Timing_engraver) -for generating bar lines and time signatures. In polymetric music, this timing -information can be different for every staff, so we should redefine -the code(Staff) context to include and the code(Score) context to exclude the -code(Timing_engraver). - -mudela(verbatim)( -polymetricpaper = \paper { - Score = \translator { - \type Score_engraver; - \consists "Score_priority_engraver"; - \consists "Priority_horizontal_align_engraver"; - \consists "Vertical_align_engraver"; - % \consists "Timing_engraver"; % removed Timing_engraver - \accepts "Staff"; - } - - Staff = \translator { - \type "Line_group_engraver_group"; - - defaultclef = violin; - - \consists "Bar_engraver"; - \consists "Clef_engraver"; - \consists "Key_engraver"; - \consists "Local_key_engraver"; - \consists "Time_signature_engraver"; - \consists "Timing_engraver"; % added Timing_engraver - \consists "Staff_sym_engraver"; - \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"; - - \accepts "Voice"; - } -} -\score { - \melodic < - \type Staff = one { \time 2/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } - \type Staff = two { \time 3/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } - > - \paper { \polymetricpaper - linewidth = -1.; - } -} -) - -As you can see, we used the identifier code(polymetricpaper) to break -up the large score block. More of these context definitions appear in -the standard initialisation file file(engraver.ly). - -sect(Urtexts and context selection) -label(tutorial:urtext) - -In bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs), we have shown you how to make -multiple staffs, and explained that you have to label every staff (or -more precisely: different contexts), to make sure that new ones are -created when you need them. In this section, the real power of this -mechanism will unveiled. - -By naming other contexts that you create, you can reference other contexts -than the current context from within the music. For example, from within the music that you -enter for staff code(One), one could enter a small piece of music, -and send it to staff code(Two), e.g., -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - < - \type Staff = one { c''4 \type Staff = two { c4 c4 } c''4 } - \type Staff = two { \clef bass; g,4 g,4 g,4 g,4 } - > -) - - -Another useful application of this feature is making Urtexts. -em(Urtext) is the German word for `original text'. The Urtext -edition of a piece of music, is an edition that reflects the original -writing of the composer. Such editions are useful for musicologists, -and performers that want to perform authentic interpretations. However, -for mere mortals, the Urtext can be quite hard to read. It might not -contain fingering and beaming, and typically it is full of footnotes. -Moreover, common interpretations may have emerged---after the composer -died. For this reason, the music that can be had as Urtext usually is also -available in enhanced and edited editions. - -The mechanism of context selection can be used to fabricate an Urtext -and an edited edition from em(one source). We will use the first few -bars of bind(J.)bind(S.)Bach's lovely Cello suite bind(no.)I to -demonstrate this. The example makes heavy use of space rests: a space -rest is a like a rest that doesn't print anything. It can be used as -a placeholder, to attach articulation marks to. It is entered as a -note with the name code(s). - -mudela(verbatim)( - bach = \melodic { [c16 g e' d'] [e' g e' g] } - - staffStuff = \melodic { \clef bass; \time 4/4; s1 \bar "|."; } - - slursOne = \melodic { s16( s s s s16 s s )s } - slursTwo = \melodic { s16-. s s() s s16() s s ()s } - - \score{ - { < \type Voice = celloVoice { \bach \bach } - \type Voice = celloVoice { \slursOne \slursOne } - \staffStuff - > - < - \type Voice = celloVoice { \bach \bach } - \type Voice = celloVoice { \slursTwo \slursTwo } - \staffStuff - > - } - \paper {} - } -) - - The slurs that you define should be put on the music that is defined -by the code(\bach) identifier. By labeling a code(Voice) context, and -directing both the articulation and the notes to that same code(Voice) -context, the articulation is put over the right notes. - - -sect(Transposing) -label(tutorial:more-grammar) - -COMMENT(In this section, we will complete the grammar for Music that was -sketched earlier. ) -One of the things that you can do with music is -em(transposing) it. If you want to transpose a piece of music, then -you should prefix the keyword code(\transpose) along with the pitch -(relative to the central C) for the transposition.footnote(the -code(\type Staff) is to make sure that no separate staffs are created -for the code(\scale) and code(\transpose cis' \scale) part.) - - -mudela(verbatim)( -scale = \melodic \relative c' { [c8 d e f] } -\score { - \melodic { - \type Staff { \scale \transpose cis' \scale } - } - \paper { linewidth = -1.0; } -}) - - -sect(Staff switching) - -We have seen that contexts can be nested. This means that they form a -tree. It is possible to edit this tree: for example, a code(Voice) -context can be taken out of a code(Staff) context, and put into -another. This has the effect of the voice switching staffs (something -that often happens in keyboard music). The syntax for this operation -with these particular contexts is code(\translator Staff = newStaffName). - -The effect is analogous to the first example in section -ref(tutorial:urtext), but with the code(\translator) construction it -is possible to split the real music and the commands that determine in -which staff the music is printed. For example: - -mudela(verbatim)( - -% real music -aVoice = \type Voice = voiceA \melodic { c''4 c4 c4 c''4 } -bVoice = \type Voice = voiceB \melodic { g,4 g,4 g,4 g,4 } - -% staff switching stuff -switch = \type Voice = voiceA \melodic { s4 \translator Staff = staffB s4 - s4 \translator Staff = staffA s4 } - -\score { - < - \type Staff = staffA < \aVoice \switch > - \type Staff = staffB < \bVoice \clef bass; > - > - \paper { linewidth = -1.; } -} -) - -Don't try to switch staffs when you are in the middle of a slur or -beam, though. It doesn't work yet. - -sect(Hairy durations: triplets) - -In the previous section we explained an operation that changes the -pitches of music, transposition. In this section we will explain an -operation that modifies the duration of the notes that you enter. -When notes are part of a triplet, then the real of duration of the -notes are 2/3 part of what their shape indicates: -mudela(fragment)( -\[/3 c'4 c'4 c'4 \]/1 -) - -To support this notion, Mudela allows you to modify the duration of a -note by multiplication or division. A code(c'4) note that would be in a -triplet is written as code(c'4*2/3). If you sequence a few of these -notes, you get a triplet.footnote(We added a normal staff in the example to -show the difference.) -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -< \type Staff = staffA { c'8*2/3 c'8*2/3 c'8*2/3 c'4} - \type Staff = staffB { c''8 c''8 c''4 } >) - -LilyPond knows that these notes are no normal eighth notes, but the -reader doesn't yet. To help the reader a beam or a bracket with a `3' -should be printed. The special beam command `code([2/3)' and the -matching close beam `code(]1/1)' will take care of that, and -they also abbreviate the code(*2/3) part. If you want brackets in -stead of beams, you can use `code(\[2/3])' and `code(\]1/1)'. -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -< \type Staff = staffA { - [2/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]1/1 - \[2/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 \]1/1 - } - \type Staff = staffB { [c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8] } ->) - -Other tuplets can be entered in the same way. -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -< \type Staff = staffA { - \time 7/8; - [7/6 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]1/1 - } - \type Staff = staffB { - \time 7/8; - [c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8] } > -) - -For your convenience, code([2/3) can be further abbreviated to code([/3), and -you can abbreviate code(]1/1) on the closing beam marker to code(]/1). - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -< \type Staff = staffA { - [/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]/1 c'4 - } - \type Staff = staffB { [c''8 c''8] c''4 } > -) - - -bf(Important) the construct with code([/3) and -code([/1) is a hack that sets a mode in the parser. This means that -verb(id = \melodic { c8 c8 c8 } -notATriplet =\melodic { [2/3 \id ]1/1 }) -does not produce a triplet. It will hopefully -soon be replaced by a construction that mixes more elegantly with the -grammar for Music. - - -sect(Shortcuts for octaves) -label(sec:relativeoctaves) - -Plain Mudela contains a lot of quotes to get the octaves right. This -need for quotes can be reduced: most of the pitch intervals in -conventional music are small. Therefore, it makes sense to leave out -the quotes when the interval is small. We have built a mode that does -exactly this. It is called the relative mode for octaves. You can -switch it on by entering code(\relative). Then LilyPond will -interpret every note as if they mean the note with the same name -closest to the previous. You have to specify the first pitch because -the first note of a list obviously has no predecessor. So, you can -enter a scale without using octavation quotes, e.g., - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( - \relative c' { c d e f g a b c } -) - -For chords, the relative mode works slightly differently. In a -sequence of chords, the first note of a chord gives the starting point -for the next chord. We can demonstrate this with our twinkle twinkle example -verb( - \relative c' { - c4 c - - - - } -) - -LilyPond converts any music with code(\relative) prepended to absolute -music immediately when it is read. Internally it is stored it in -absolute pitches. Since the tutorial mainly deals with how to specify -musical information, and not how to enter it conveniently, the -tutorial doesn't use it. - - -sect(Large pieces) -label(tutorial:large-pieces) - -In our quest for a clean and powerfull music language, we took the effort -of entering some larger pieces of music as well. From this we learned -certain things that lead to direct improvements of Mudela, such as the -relative mode. We also gained some practial experience, that resulted in a -compilation of tips that may be of use to you. - -Entering a large piece of music will often imply the need to produce a -conductor's score, as well as individual parts for all instruments. This -can most easily be achieved making use of identifiers and including mudela -files. - -subsect(Identifiers) - -Briefly introduced before, identifiers are your biggest help in structurising -a large piece of music. As an example, we'll consider a string quartet. -In short, it will look like this: verb( - global = \melodic{ } - violinoOne = \melodic \relative c { .. } - violinoTwo = \melodic \relative c { .. } - viola = \melodic \relative c { .. } - violoncello = \melodic \relative c { .. } -) - -The code(\global) part contains everything that is global, i.e., the -same, for each instrument. This may include time signature, key, repeat -signs, different bar types, time signature- and key changes, rehearsal -marks, etc. - -For each instrument, you'll have something vaguely resembling verb( - violinoOneStaff = \type Staff = violinoOne < - \property Staff.midi_instrument = "violin" - \property Staff.instrument = "Violino I" - \property Staff.instr = "Vl. I" - \global - \violinoOne - > -) - - -[Versions, relative mode, - barchecks, splitting of files] - -subsect(Including Mudela files) -ref(subsect:include) - -You can include other Mudela files with the command code(\include): -verb( -\include "paper13.ly" -\score { - ... - \paper { \paper_thirteen } -}) - -The file is looked for in the standard search path. - - -subsect(Grouping of staffs) - -subsect(Versioning) - -sect(Titling) -label(tutorial:titling) - -A piece of sheet music isn't complete without proper opening and -closing titles. LilyPond does not have any real support for setting -text: that is a job best left to TeX(). But you can pass messages to -TeX() from the input file. You can write TeX() macros to handle -these messages. -To do this, you add a code(\header) block -to your input file. The format is quite simple, - -verb( -\header{ - "key" = "value"; - "key" = "value"; - "key" = "value"; - % etc. -}) - -When the results of the music typesetting are output, the contents of -code(\header) are also up into the TeX() file. Tools like -code(ly2dvi) can use this information to generate pretty titling for -your input file. Consult the manual page of code(ly2dvi) for more -details. - - -The code(\header) block should be at toplevel in mudela, and -preferably at the top of the file. If you have an input file with -multiple code(\score) blocks, you should add a header to every score, -describing the different sub parts of the music piece, eg. - - -verb(\header { - "composer" = "Ludwig Van Bavaria"; - "title" = "Symphonie Megalomane"; - } - \score{ - ... % some music - \header { movement = "Mit roher Kraft wild herausfahrend!"; } - \paper { } - } - \score{ - ... % some more music - \header { movement = "Saut\'e comme un oeuf."; } - \paper { } - } -) - -If you want you can also put the code(\header) block at the top of the -input file; it will then be put into every output file automatically. -This will make it clear what the file contains as soon as you open it. - - - -chapter(Features) -label(features) - -bf(This document is not up to date). All rendered examples of course -are current, but the rest probably isn't. Adjusting the tutorial was -considered more important than writing the reference manual. We -apologize for the inconvenience. - - -This document describes the the GNU LilyPond input format, which is an -effective language for defining music. We call this language (rather -arrogantly) The Musical Definition Language or Mudela, for -short.footnote(If anybody comes up with a better name, we'd gladly - take this. Gourlay already uses Musical Description Language, - G-Sharp Score Definition Language. ISO standard 10743 defines a - Standard Music Description Language. We're not being original here.) - -The first aim of Mudela is to define a piece of music, being complete -from both from a musical typesetting, as from a musical performing -point of view. - -The Musical Definition Language (Mudela), has a logical structure, -making use of identifiers, that allows for flexible input, and -definition reuse. See the documentation file file(MANIFESTO), included -with the LilyPond sources for reasons and design considerations. - -The below is included for explanatory purposes only (i.e., for a -complete and up-to-date definition, see file(lily/parser.yy) and -file(lily/lexer.ll)). - -As a related note, you should take a look at the examples and the init -files, as this document does not cover every aspect of Mudela yet, and -may be out of date.footnote(Ok, I am being pessimistic here. This -just is a disclaimer. Docs usually are written after the program -itself.) This document intends to give an idea of how it works. It is -not a guide on how to use it. - -sect(Files) - -The de-facto extension of Mudela is file(.ly). Files may be included by -entering code(\include) at the start of a line: - -verb( -\include "a_file.ly" -) - - -sect(Comments) - -Line comments are introduced by a -code(%). -Block comments are delimited -by -code(%{) -and -code(%}). -They do not nest. - - -sect(Versions) - -Occasionally, small changes in syntax across different versions of -Mudela might give syntax errors. To warn you about possible -incompatibilities, you can specify the Mudela version for which the -inputfile was written, -verb( -\version "0.0.50"; -) - -A Python-script which tries to convert to newer versions -(file(convert-mudela)) is included in the LilyPond distribution. - -sect(Keywords) - -Keywords are preceded by a backslash: code(\). They contain -alphabetic characters only. - - -sect(Nesting characters) - -Mudela uses the brace, `code({)' and `code(})' for most hierarchical -structures. For chords the code(<) and the code(>) are used as -nesting braces. - -sect(Constants) - -verb( -"I am a string" --1.2e3 % a real -12 % an int -) - - -sect(Identifiers) - -When assigning identifiers you use - -verb( -string = ... -) - -If you reuse identifiers, then the previous contents will be thrown -away after the right hand is evaluated, e.g. -verb( -bla = \melodic { \bla } -) -is legal - -When using identifiers they have to be escaped: - -verb( -oboe = \melodic { ... } -\score{ \melodic { \oboe }} -) - -The left-hand part of the assignment is really a string, so -verb( -"Foo bar 4 2 " = \melodic { .. } -) - -is also a valid assignment (but you would have trouble referencing to it) - - -sect(Hierarchical structures) - -The general structure consists of declarations: -verb( -IDENTIFIER = \TYPE{ - -} -) -and instantiations: - -verb( -\TYPE{ } -) - -(Currently, code(\score) is the only type that can be instantiated -at top level.) - -Most instantiations that use an IDENTIFIER are specified as follows: - -verb( -\TYPE{ \IDENTIFIER [...] } -) - -Some exceptions on this rule have been made to prevent inputting -Mudela becoming tedious - -sect(Modes:) - -To simplify different aspects of music definition (entering the notes -and manipulating them) Mudela has a number of different input "modes": - -description( - - -dit(Normal mode) - -At the start of parsing, Mudela assumes normal mode. -In Normal mode, a word is looked up in the following order: -description( -dit(code(word)) string -dit(code("string")) string -dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier -) -In normal mode, a word is assumed to start with an alphabetic -character, followed by alpha-numeric characters. - -dit(Note mode) Note mode is introduced by the keyword - code(\melodic). In Note mode, a word is looked up in the following - order: -description( -dit(code(word)) notename, string -dit(code("string")) string -dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier -) - -In Note mode a word is considered to have alphabetic characters only, -so the underscore (_) is invalid. If you accidently mistype a -notename, the parser will assume that you are entering a string (and -it will most likely complain that you should be in code(\lyric) mode to -do lyrics) - - -dit(Lyric mode) Lyrics mode is introduced by the keyword - code(\lyric). Because of the various control characters that can - appear in lyrics, e.g., foreign language accents, the inputting a - string containing these has been made very easy. - -In Lyrics mode, a word is looked up in the following order: -description( -dit(code(word)) string (thus a lyric) -dit(code("string")) string -dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier -) - -In Lyric mode every sequence of non-digit and non-white characters -starting with an alphabetic character or the _ is considered a word. - -verb( -a&@&@&TSI|{[ % a word -1THtrhortho % not a "word" -Leise DOEXPAND(Fl\)DOEXPAND("u\)ss{}teren meine Sapfe % 4 words -_ _ _ _ % 4 words: 4 spaces -) -) - -These modes are of a lexical nature. Normal and Note mode largely -resemble each other, save the possibility of entering Reals, -meaning of code(_) and the resolution of words - - - - - -Durations are entered as their reciprocal values -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -a'1 a'2 a'4 a a'8 a a'16 a'32 a'64 -) -Notice that you only have to specify the duration when it changes: Lily -assumes a note has the same duration as the previous one. - -Now we can already write a little tune -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -c' d' e' c' | c' d' e' c' | e' f' g'2 -) -As you'll probably have guessed, -the vertical bar code(|) may be used to mark -measures. - -In the scale shown above -we left-out the last c note of the next octave. -Postfixing the pitch with a quote code(') -produces a note by one octave higher -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -c c' c'' -) - -Postfixing the pitch with a comma, code(,) -produces a note by one octave lower -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -a a, a,, -) - -sect(Slurs and Ties) - -A tie connects two adjacent note heads - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -e' ~ e' -) - -Whereas a slur rather connects `chords', -and tries to avoid crossing stems - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -e'( )e' -) - -And of course, such a (legato) slur can span several notes -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -c'( d' e' )f' -) - -sect(Beams and Tuplets) - -A beam is -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -[a'8 a'] [a'16 a' a' a'] -) - -Here's a beamed triplet -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -[/3 a'8 a' a']/1 -) - -a triplet without a beam -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -\[/3 a'4 a'8\] -) - -and a combination -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -[/3 a'8 a'16 a'] a'8 \] -) - -Abbreviations -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -c'1:16 [:16 e'1 g'] -) - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -c'4:32 [:16 c'8 d'8] -) - -sect(Notenames) - -Lily has predefined sets of notenames -for various nop(languages)footnote(These -are Dutch, English, German, Italian and Swedish. -Simply include the language specific init file file(language.ly).). -The default set are the ones we like best are the Dutch notenames. - -A sharp is formed by adding code(is) -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -cis' dis' eis' fis' gis' ais' bis' -) - -and a flat is formed by adding code(es) -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -ces' des' es' fes' ges' as' bes' -) - -With the obvious names for double sharps -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -cisis' disis' eisis' fisis' gisis' aisis' bisis' -) - -and double flats -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -ceses' deses' eses' feses' geses' ases' beses' -) - - -There are two special `notenames', the rest -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -r16 [a' a' a'] -) - -and the space -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -a'2 s-"diminuendo" | a' -) - - -sect(Commands) - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -\clef "bass"; c -) - -and a clef-change -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -\clef "treble"; f' e' \clef "alto"; d' c' -) - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -\time 3/4; c' g' g' | -) - -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -\key d; -g a b cis' d' e' fis' g' -) -Note how Mudela allows you to -convey a musical message and doesn't force you to produce a list of typesetting commands. -If the music has a code(cis), you type a code(cis). -Depending on the key and context of the note -Lily will determine what accidentals to typeset. - -A reminder accidental can be forced by -using an exclamation mark code(!) -on a pitch a reminder accidental -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -cis' d' e' cis' | c'! d' e' c' | -) - -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -\time 2/4; -\bar "|:"; c' c' \bar ":|:"; c' c' \bar ":|"; c' c' \bar "|."; -) - -sect(Chords and Voices) - -Here's a simple chord -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( - -) - -here are a few -mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( -< - { c'()d'()c' } - { e'()f'()e' } - { g'()a'()g' } -> -) - -and similarly voices -mudela(fragment,verbatim)( -< - { \voiceone c'4 g' c' g' } - { \voicetwo c2 g2 } -> -) - - -sect(A complete example) -COMMENT(%label(se:complete)) - -A Mudela file needs some red tape - -mudela(verbatim)( -\score{ - \melodic { - c' d' e' c' | - c' d' e' c' | - e' f' g'2 | - } -} -) - -sect(Lyrics) - -Lyrics are entered like notes, with pitches substituted -by text. - -All syllables are entered separately, separated by whitespace -verb( -Twin-4 kle4 twin-4 kle4 ... -) - -Two syllables or words that compose a single -duration entry are bound together using an underscore -verb( -He_could4 not4 -) - - -COMMENT( -URG - Fr\`e-4 re Ja- que - Fr\`e- re Ja- que -) - -mudela(verbatim,center)( -\score{ - < - \melodic \transpose c'' { - c d e c | c d e c | - e f g'2 | e'4 f g'2 - \bar "|."; - } - \type Lyrics \lyric{ - DOEXPAND(Fr\)`e-4 re Ja- que - DOEXPAND(Fr\)`e- re Ja- que - Dor- mez vous?2 - Dor-4 mez vous?2 - } - > -} -) - -sect(Composition: forming bigger structures) -label(sec:grammar) - -The computer savy user may be interested in a more formal -specification. We can capture what have learned about forming -sentences in Mudela in a context-free grammar. - -latexcommand(\smallskip) - -table(2)(lll)( - row(cell(em(Music))cell(: em(Note))) - row(cell()cell(code(|) em(Rest))) - row(cell()cell(code(|) code({) em(MusicList) code(}))) - row(cell()cell(code(|) code(<) em(MusicList) code(>))) - row(cell()cell(code(|) em(Command))) - row(cell()cell(code(|) code(\type) em(string) code(=) em(string) em(Music))) - row(cell()cell(;)) - row(cell(em(MusicList))cell(: em(empty))) - row(cell()cell(code(|) em(MusicList) em(Music))) - row(cell()cell(;)) -) - -latexcommand(\smallskip) - - - - - -In mathematics you can form expressions by combining expressions, -which are ultimately some kind of atom or terminal symbol. The same -goes for Mudela: there are some basic building blocks, and by -combining those you create complex music. - -You can combine music in three ways: -itemize( -it()If you enclose a sequence of music-elements in braces ( code({) - and code(}) ), then you form another kind of music called -sequential music - with those pieces. - The duration of sequential composition is the sum of the durations of its elements - verb( - { c c g g a a g2 } % twinkle twinkle - { { c c g g} { a a g2 } } - ) -it()You can stack music by enclosing a sequence of music elements - with code(<) and code(>). This is called simultaneous music. - The duration of a simultaneous composition is the union of the durations - of its elements Example: - verb( - % a-major chord - ) -it()You can form music by transposing music: - verb( - \transpose - d % from c to the d that's almost one octave down - { e4 f4 } % the horizontal music -) -it()verb(\type) -it()verb(\property) -it()verb(\translator) -it()verb(\relative) -) - -Of course you can also combine these three mechanisms. -verb( -{ c } % 4 increasing chords -) - - -sect(Durations) - -A duration always starts with the duration type (1,2,4 etc), and then -any optional multipliers/dots. `Gregrorian' durations can be entered -as follows -verb( -c'\breve -gis'\longa -) - - - -sect(Time signatures/groupings) - -A time signature specification has this form: -verb( -\time 3/4 ; -) - -Rhythmic grouping is a concept closely associated with this. For -example, in a 5/8 time signature, the counts are grouped 2+3. In Mudela this is -entered as -verb( -\grouping 8*2 8*3 ; -) - -You can start the piece with a partial measure, the command takes a -duration as an argument -verb( -\partial 16*3; -) - -Make the piece start with a upstep -lasting 1 3/4 quarter notes. - -These commands constitute `Music', and have a duration of 0. - - -sect(Properties) - -By default the same accidentals are valid for all octaves, but - this can be changed with the property code(specialaccidentals). - - -The identifier code(\specialkey) sets the property for the Staff. A -key with two flats in one octave and three - sharps in the next can be declared with verb(\specialkey -\accidentals bes es fis' cis' gis';) - -sect(Music fragments) -label(tutorial:music-fragments) - -Sometimes you only need to print a small fragment of music, perhaps -something much like one of the examples in this document. Back in -section ref(sec:running-lilypond) we told you that the music you -enter should be encapsulated in something like: -verb( -\score< - \melodic\relative c{ - d - } - \paper{ } - \midi{ } -> -) -where the only interesting information is this particular example is verb( - d -) -The rest of the above example was already nicknamed `red tape'. -You may easily get bored if you have to provide this same red tape -for every fragmenty you nop(try)footnote(Of course, in most cases your -favourite text editor (TM) -will help you out.). - -Luckily there's a trick around this, and it's called file(.fly) files. -If you use the extension file(.fly) for Mudela file file(foo), -LilyPond will embed your file(foo.fly) nop(in)footnote(Or something very -similar. If you want to know exactly, see file(init/init.fly)): -verb( -\score< - \melodic\relative c{ - <> - } - \paper{ } - \midi{ } -) - -Here's how it works. If you run LilyPond on your file file(bar.ly), you -may notice that she starts-off by reading quite a number of files before -she actually reaches your file(bar.ly). There's no magic going on, Lily -by default reads an initialisation file (file(init/init.ly)). In the -initialisation process a lot of things are defined that you'll need for -normal operation, such as notenames and various other mudela shortcuts, -engraver and perforer definitions, font sizes, musical dimensions and -paper sizes. When you use the extension file(.fly), Lily just starts -reading another initialisation file (file(init/init.fly)), that includes the -red tape for you too. - - -appendix() - -chapter(Glossary) -label(glossary) - -This glossary is far from complete. Additions are welcome. - -whenlatex(latexcommand( - {\parindent -1pc - \parskip 0pc\parsep 0pc - % COMMENT( from the texbook) - \def\length#1{\count0=0 \getlength#1\end} - \def\getlength#1{\ifx#1\end \let\next=\relax - \else\advance\count0 by1 \let\next=\getlength\fi \next} - \def\inlanguage#1#2{{\length{#2}% - \ifnum\count0=0 - \else - \emph{#1}: #2. - \fi}} - \small - - % COMMENT(\def\tableentry#1#2#3#4#5#6#7{\par\textbf{#1}: #7) - \def\tableentry#1#2#3#4#5#6#7{\par{\bf #1}: #7 - \inlanguage{Fran\c cais}{#2} - \inlanguage{British}{#4} \inlanguage{Deutsch}{#3} - \inlanguage{Nederlands}{#5}\inlanguage{Italiano}{#6}} - \input{vocabulary} - } -)) - -whenhtml( - includeverbatim(DOEXPAND(outdir)/vocabulary.html) -) - -whenlatex(latexcommand( - \bibliographystyle{plain} - \bibliography{engraving} -)) - - -COMMENT(The bib stuff is somewhere else on the WWW site) -COMMENT( -setchapterstring{} - -whenhtml{ - nchapter{Bibliography} - includeverbatim{out-www/engraving.html} -}) - diff --git a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/allemande-alto.ly b/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/allemande-alto.ly deleted file mode 100644 index e8fbc3bda3..0000000000 --- a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/allemande-alto.ly +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ -\header{ -filename = "allemande-alto.ly"; -title = "Solo Cello Suites"; -subtitle = "Suite II"; -piece = "Allemande"; -% opus = "BWV 1008"; -opus = ""; -composer = "Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)"; -enteredby = "JCN"; -copyright = "public domain"; -} - -%{ - Tested Features:breaking algorithm, chords, multivoice, accents, - dotted slurs -%} - -\version "1.0.0"; - -\include "allemande-urtext.ly"; - -allemande_alto_global = \melodic{ - \time 4/4; - \key f; - \partial 16; - \clef alto; - \skip 1*11; - s2. s8. - \bar ":|:"; - \skip 1*11; - s2. s4 s8 - \bar ":|"; -} - -allemande_alto_scripts = \melodic{ -} - -allemande_alto_staff = \type Staff < - \melodic \transpose c'' \$allemande - \$allemande_alto_global - \$allemande_alto_scripts -> - -\score{ - \$allemande_alto_staff - \include "scs-paper.ly"; - \midi{ \tempo 4 = 45; } -} - diff --git a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/courante-alto.ly b/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/courante-alto.ly deleted file mode 100644 index 8e7f0970be..0000000000 --- a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/courante-alto.ly +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ -\header{ -filename = "courante-alto.ly"; -title = "Solo Cello Suites"; -subtitle = "Suite II"; -piece = "Courante"; -% opus = "BWV 1008"; -opus = ""; -composer = "Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)"; -enteredby = "JCN"; -copyright = "public domain"; -} - -%{ - Tested Features:breaking algorithm, chords, multivoice, accents, - dotted slurs -%} - -\version "1.0.0"; - -\include "courante-urtext.ly"; - -courante_alto_global = \melodic{ - \time 3/4; - \key f; - \partial 16; - \clef alto; - \skip 2.*15; - s2 s8. - \bar ":|:"; - \skip 2.*15; - s2 s8. - \bar ":|"; -} - -courante_alto_scripts = \melodic{ -} - -courante_alto_staff = \type Staff < - \melodic \transpose c' \$courante - \$courante_alto_global - \$courante_alto_scripts -> - -\score{ - \$courante_alto_staff - \include "scs-paper.ly"; - \midi{ \tempo 4 = 55; } -} - diff --git a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/gigue-alto.ly b/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/gigue-alto.ly deleted file mode 100644 index 784dea6b29..0000000000 --- a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/gigue-alto.ly +++ /dev/null @@ -1,50 +0,0 @@ -\header{ -filename = "gigue-cello.ly"; -title = "Solo Cello Suites"; -subtitle = "Suite II"; -piece = "Pr\\'elude"; % duh -% opus = "BWV 1008"; -opus = ""; -composer = "Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)"; -enteredby = "JCN"; -copyright = "public domain"; -} - -%{ - Tested Features:breaking algorithm, chords, multivoice, accents, - dotted slurs -%} - -\version "1.0.0"; - -\include "gigue-urtext.ly"; - -gigue_cello_global = \melodic{ - \time 3/8; - \key f; - \clef bass; - \partial 8 - \skip 4.*31; - s4 - \bar ":|:"; - \skip 4.*44; - s4 - \bar ":|"; -} - -gigue_cello_scripts = \melodic{ -} - -gigue_cello_staff = \type Staff < - \melodic \transpose c' \$gigue - \$gigue_cello_global - \$gigue_cello_scripts -> - -\score{ - \$gigue_cello_staff - \include "scs-paper.ly"; -%broken - \midi{ \tempo 4 = 60; } -} - diff --git a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/menuetto-alto.ly b/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/menuetto-alto.ly deleted file mode 100644 index 96ed306a9f..0000000000 --- a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/menuetto-alto.ly +++ /dev/null @@ -1,95 +0,0 @@ -\header{ -filename = "menuetto-alto.ly"; -title = "Solo Cello Suites"; -subtitle = "Suite II"; -piece = "Menuetto I"; -description = "Transcribed for Alto"; -source = "?"; -% opus = "BWV 1008 no. 5"; -opus = ""; -composer = "Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)"; -enteredby = "JCN"; -copyright = "public domain"; -} - -%{ - Tested Features:breaking algorithm, chords, multivoice, accents, - dotted slurs -%} - -\version "1.0.0"; - -\include "menuetto-urtext.ly"; - -menuetto_i_alto_global = \melodic{ - \time 3/4; - \key f; - \clef alto; - \skip 2.*8; - \bar ":|:"; - \clef violin; - \skip 2.*1; - \slurdotted - \skip 2.*3; - \clef alto; - \skip 2.*11; - s2._"Fine" - \bar ":|"; -} - -menuetto_i_alto_scripts = \melodic{ - s2. - s8^"~"^1_2_4 s8*5 - s2.*5 - s4 s-\upbow s-\downbow - s2.-\upbow - s2.*5 - s2 s4-\upbow - s4-\downbow s2 - s2.*1 - s2^0 s4 - s2.*1 - s4-\downbow s4-\upbow -} - -menuetto_i_alto_staff = \type Staff < - \melodic \transpose c' \$menuetto_i - \$menuetto_i_alto_global -% \$menuetto_i_alto_scripts -> - -\score{ - \$menuetto_i_alto_staff - \include "scs-paper.ly"; - \midi{ \tempo 4 = 110; } -} - -menuetto_ii_alto_global = \melodic{ - \time 3/4; - \key D; - \clef alto; - \skip 2.*8; - \bar ":|:"; - \skip 2.*1; - \slurdotted - \skip 2.*14; - s2._"Menuetto I da Capo" - \bar ":|"; -} - -menuetto_ii_alto_staff = \type Staff < - \melodic \transpose c' \$menuetto_ii - \$menuetto_ii_alto_global -% \$menuetto_ii_alto_scripts -> - -\header{ -piece = "Menuetto II"; -opus = ""; -} -\score{ - \$menuetto_ii_alto_staff - \include "scs-paper.ly"; - \midi{ \tempo 4 = 130; } -} - diff --git a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/prelude-alto.ly b/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/prelude-alto.ly deleted file mode 100644 index 2219165c5e..0000000000 --- a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/prelude-alto.ly +++ /dev/null @@ -1,44 +0,0 @@ -\header{ -filename = "prelude-alto.ly"; -title = "Solo Cello Suites"; -subtitle = "Suite II"; -piece = "Pr\\'elude"; % duh -opus = "BWV 1008"; -% opus = ""; -composer = "Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)"; -enteredby = "JCN"; -copyright = "public domain"; -} - -%{ - Tested Features:breaking algorithm, chords, multivoice, accents, - dotted slurs -%} - -\version "1.0.0"; - -\include "prelude-urtext.ly"; - -prelude_alto_global = \melodic{ - \time 3/4; - \key f; - \clef alto; - \skip 2.*63; - \bar "|."; -} - -prelude_alto_scripts = \melodic{ -} - -prelude_alto_staff = \type Staff < - \melodic \transpose c' \$prelude - \$prelude_alto_global - \$prelude_alto_scripts -> - -\score{ - \$prelude_alto_staff - \include "scs-paper.ly"; - \midi{ \tempo 4 = 40; } -} - diff --git a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/sarabande-alto.ly b/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/sarabande-alto.ly deleted file mode 100644 index b39274e169..0000000000 --- a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/sarabande-alto.ly +++ /dev/null @@ -1,46 +0,0 @@ -\header{ -filename = "sarabande-alto.ly"; -title = "Solo Cello Suites"; -subtitle = "Suite II"; -piece = "Sarabande"; -% opus = "BWV 1008"; -opus = ""; -composer = "Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)"; -enteredby = "JCN"; -copyright = "public domain"; -} - -%{ - Tested Features:breaking algorithm, chords, multivoice, accents, - dotted slurs -%} - -\version "1.0.0"; - -\include "sarabande-urtext.ly"; - -sarabande_alto_global = \melodic{ - \time 3/4; - \key f; - \clef alto; - \skip 2.*12; - \bar ":|:"; - \skip 2.*16; - \bar ":|"; -} - -sarabande_alto_scripts = \melodic{ -} - -sarabande_alto_staff = \type Staff < - \melodic \transpose c' \$sarabande - \$sarabande_alto_global - \$sarabande_alto_scripts -> - -\score{ - \$sarabande_alto_staff - \include "scs-paper.ly"; - \midi{ \tempo 4 = 40; } -} - diff --git a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/scsii-alto.ly b/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/scsii-alto.ly deleted file mode 100644 index e0ba58142c..0000000000 --- a/mutopia/J.S.Bach/Solo-Cello-Suites/scsii-alto.ly +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7 +0,0 @@ -\header{ -instrument="Alto"; -} - -instrument="alto"; -\include "solo-cello-suite-ii.ly" -