+++ /dev/null
-COMMENT(-*-text-*-)
-
-DEFINEMACRO(var)(1)(whenlatex(latexcommand({\normalfont\scshape )ARG1+latexcommand(}))\
- whenhtml(sc(ARG1)))
-
-
-
-COMMENT( This document contains Mudela fragments. You need at least
-Yodl-1.30.18 to convert this to tex or html.
-
-TODO
-
-in stead <-> instead
-)
-
-htmlbodyopt(bgcolor)(white)
-htmlcommand(<font color=black>)
-
-latexpackage()(a4wide)
-latexlayoutcmds(
-%\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
-\input mudela-book
-)
-
-whenlatex(notableofcontents())
-whentexinfo(notableofcontents())
-
-report(Mudela, the Music-Definition Language)
- (Han-Wen Nienhuys and Jan Nieuwenhuizen)
- (nop()PIPETHROUGH(date "+%B %d, %Y")()()nop())
-
-COMMENT(
-
-* The [ ] look weird
-
-* paragraphs have too much space.
-
-)
-
-
-latexcommand(\def\interexample{})
-latexcommand(\def\preexample{\par})
-latexcommand(\def\postexample{\par\medskip})
-latexcommand(\def\file#1{{code(#1)}})
-COMMENT(
-latexcommand(\def\texttt#1{\tt #1})
-latexcommand(\def\textbf#1{\bf #1})
-)
-
-chapter(Tutorial)
-
-whenhtml(
-nsubsect(Disclaimer)
-This document is written in url(Yodl)(ftp://pcnov095.win.tue.nl/pub/yodl)
-and should foremost produce nice LaTeX() output.
-In other formats, such as html, some things will look a bit different,
-while other things will be simply left out.
-Therefore, the authoritive version of this document is the PostScript version,
-produced via LaTeX().
-)
-
-sect(Introduction)
-label(tutorial:introduction)
-latexcommand(\parindent2pc)
-
-If you are reading this, you probably are interested in printing
-music. LilyPond is a program that can print music from a
-specification that you, the user, supply. Using LilyPond may be a bit
-quaint in the beginning, because you have to give that specification
-using a em(language). That might not be what you expect if you are
-familiar with graphical interfaces. But there are some big
-advantages: first, once you master the language, entering music can be
-done quite efficiently. Secondly, it is possible to explain exactly
-what the meaning of a language is, i.e., the semantics are much
-clearer. Thirdly, since the program is not interactive, no tradeoffs
-have to be made between processing speed and beauty of the output.
-
-This chapter is a gentle introduction to Mudela, the language that
-instructs LilyPond to typeset music. We will explain Mudela by
-presenting a series of examples of Mudela input. The corresponding
-output will be shown on the right or below, just as it was produced by
-LilyPond.
-
-We will assume that you more or less understand the basics of music notation.
-If you are not familiar with the English terms for music notation, you
-should consult bind(Appendix)ref(glossary): it contains a glossary
-of musical terms along with translations in some other languages.
-
-If you want to try the examples given here, you should have look a
-look at bind(Section)ref(sec:running-lilypond) first.
-
-sect(Music copying, music definition and music entry)
-label(tutorial:copying-vs-def-vs-entry)
-
-If you have copied music before, using LilyPond may seem awkward
-to you in the beginning. The purpose of LilyPond informally is
-explained by the term `music typesetter'.
-
-This may give the impression that the program is like a drawing tool
-and that it lets you control precisely how the music is formatted.
-This is not the case: not only does the program print musical symbols,
-LilyPond also tries to make esthetic decisions---to be precise, we
-programmed her to do what we find nop(pretty.)footnote(We formed our
-taste by looking at, and reading all about fine music engraving. Of
-course, our taste is also bound by all the accepted rules of common
-music notation.) You do not have complete control over what is
-happening. Usually that is not a big loss, since good engraving is a
-very complex trade. In other words, you don't have control, so you do
-not have to worry about what is happening precisely.
-
-Secondly, we expect you to enter the meaning of the music, not the
-sheet music itself. The input to LilyPond is a music definition,
-which is something different than notation: notation is a graphical
-system. Put more concretely: your input to LilyPond should contain
-information like ``a dotted quarter note, pitch nop(d)sups(2).''
-LilyPond will figure out from the musical information that a black
-note head with a stem but without flag, fourth staff line, with dot
-should be printed.
-
-When you are copying music by hand from a printed score, you don't have
-to know what the score means; you just copy the symbols. With LilyPond
-such a thing is not possible. You have to enter the meaning of the
-symbols, and this might not always be as easy. On the other hand, once
-entered, any piece of music can be played and transposed automatically.
-
-Finally, in some spots we will cheat a bit when it comes to musical
-definition. Mudela has some entry modes that help to make typing
-Mudela pleasant. For example, the phrase ``a dotted quarter note,
-pitch nop(d)sups(2)'' translates to the following longhand:
-verb(
-\musicalpitch { 1 2 0 } \duration { 2 1 })
-
-This data is what we consider the musical em(definition). Mudela
-has a special entry mode where you can conveniently abbreviate this to
-`code(d''4.)'. There are some features that also make the quotes and
-numbers in `code(d''4.)' superfluous in some cases.
-
-For those who are curious, the numbers in `code(\musicalpitch { 1 2 0
-})' example mean octave, notename, and accidental respectively. The
-numbers in `code(\duration { 2 1 })' are the (negative) logarithm of the
-duration (2 is a quarter note, 3 is an eighth note, etc.) and the number
-of augmention dots respectively.
-
-sect(When you know the notes to nop(print)ellipsis())
-
-The basic building block of music is the note. You can have LilyPond
-print a note by specifying its pitch and duration. The pitch of the
-central C is written as code(c'). This is in line with musicological
-notation; there this pitch is transcribed as nop(c)sups(1) or c'. A
-quarter-note duration is written as code(4). So, to print a quarter
-note whose pitch is central C, you enter the following:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( c'4 )
-
-
-subsect(Duration)
-
-The duration of a note is specified as a number: a whole note is
-denoted by 1, a half note by 2, a quarter by 4, and so on. If you
-want to augment a duration with a dot, simply affix a period to the
-number. Here are some random notes to show how it works.
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64 c'2. c'8. c'16
-)
-
-subsect(Basic pitches)
-
-The pitch code(c') actually consists of two parts: one part for the
-note name, and one for the octave. The letter specifies which note
-name to use: note names simply are the letters code(a) to code(g).
-The number of apostrophes specifies the octave to use: the central C
-is denoted by code(c').footnote(By convention, the A above central C
-at concert pitch is the tone that is used to tune instruments. Its
-frequency is about 440 Hz.) The C which is an eighth higher (the C in
-the ``two-line octave'') is denoted by code(c''): every octave adds a
-quote. A note name without quotes designates the pitch below code(c')
-(the C in the ``small octave''). If you want to go down even further,
-commas should be added, e.g., the C in the ``contra octave'' is
-expressed as code(c,,).footnote(The comma is meant to represent a
-sunken apostrophe.)
-
-
-This example demonstrates octaves:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- c,,4 c,4 c4 c'4 c''4 c'''4
-)
-
-And this example demonstrates notenames:
-mudela(center,fragment,verbatim)(
- c'4 d'4 e'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 b'4 c''4
-)
-
-A rest can be entered as a note with the special name code(r), e.g.,
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(r4)
-
-This already gives us enough material to make simple songs. In
-bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1) a portion of the traditional song
-``Twinkle Twinkle Little Star'' is shown.
-
-latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h])
- center(
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4
- a''4 a''4 g''2
-)
- latexcommand(\caption{Twinkle twinkle little star (version 1)})
- label(fig:twinkle1)
- )
-latexcommand(\end{figure})
-
-
-subsect(Alterations)
-
-We have so far ignored chromatically altered pitches. The names `a'
-to `g' for entering pitches are convenient: they are short,
-pronounceable and they resemble the words for pitches in normal
-musical vocabulary.
-
-Enter flats and sharps. In English there is no standard terse word
-for C sharp or C flat. For this reason, we implemented a different,
-non-English convention for entering altered pitches: a note is made
-sharp by adding the suffix `--is' to its name, and flat by adding the
-suffix `--es'. For a double sharp another `--is' suffix is added, for
-flats another `--es' suffix. The names for the alterations of C are
-given in bind(Table)ref(notename-tab).
-
-latexcommand(\begin{table}[h])
- center(
- table(2)(ll)(
- row(cell(english)cell(LilyPond))
- rowline()
- row(cell(c double flat)cell(ceses))
- row(cell(c flat)cell(ces))
- row(cell(c natural)cell(c))
- row(cell(c sharp)cell(cis))
- row(cell(c double sharp)cell(cisis))
- )
- )
- latexcommand(\caption{Default note names})
- label(notename-tab)
-latexcommand(\end{table})
-
-Variations on this convention are used in a number of germanic
-languages, notably Dutch, German, Swedish, and Norwegian. To be
-precise, LilyPond actually defaults to Dutch notenames, with
-code(aes), code(aeses), code(ees) and code(eeses) added for
-consistency.
-
-Throughout this document we will continue to use the Dutch names. To make
-(Dutch) pronunciation easier, the a-flat and e-flat are contracted to
-code(as) and code(es). Similarly, the a double flat and e double flat are
-contracted to code(ases) and code(eses).
-
-If you are not comfortable with these names, you can make your own.
-Note names for different languages are included with the example
-initialisation files, amongst others English (C sharp is abbreviated
-to code(cs)), Italian, Swedish and Norwegian. If you want to use
-these names, you should look at bind(Section)ref(subsect:include) for
-information on how to use include files.
-
-sect(Running LilyPond)
-label(sec:running-lilypond)
-
-In the previous section some basic elements of Mudela were presented.
-We didn't want to bore you too much with repetitive details, so we
-left out some red tape that's needed for a of Mudela in a form that is accepted
-by LilyPond. To
-be precise, we wrote code(X Y Z), when we really meant
-verb(\score {
- \melodic { X Y Z }
- \paper {}
-})
-We will continue to leave out the red tape this, until the time is fit to explain what the
-above it means.
-
-
-Because LilyPond uses a language, it is a so called em(batch)
-program.
-This means, that you use a
-text editor (such as code(emacs) or code(vi)) to create an input
-file. When you are done editing your input file, you save it, and you
-run LilyPond on the file. If Lily finds any errors in your input file
-then nop(she)footnote(We're sure that if computer programs could have
- gender, LilyPond would be a female computer program. So we will
- refer to the program as a she. This gender-bending is not to tease
- you, dear reader. We do it in real life as well. In the past two
- years LilyPond has become sort of a baby daughter to us, keeping us
- awake at night, but also providing us with lots of joy. We hope you do
- not mind our little aberration from the traditions of computer-manual
- writing.) COMMENT(
- The name LilyPond is actually sort of a girl's name. Can you guess which
- one ?)
-will complain. If everything went well, then she'll generate a file, that
-you can process further to view or print.
-
-Using LilyPond to print or view some music is a four-step procedure.
-To get you started we'll run down the full procedure for you once.
-
-enumerate(
-it()
-Fire up your favourite editor (if you don't
-know any editors, try code(joe silly.ly)),
-and key in the example from bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1), with red tape:
-verb(
-\score {
- \melodic {
- c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4
- a''4 a''4 g''2
- }
- \paper {}
-}
-)
-
-Save your file as file(twinkle.ly).footnote(The default extension for Mudela
-files is file(.ly).)
-
-it()
-Run LilyPond on your newly created file: enter code(lilypond twinkle).
-LilyPond will then print all kinds of mumbo jumbo that can safely be
-ignored. You might see something like this:
-verb(
-GNU LilyPond 0.1.55/FlowerLib 1.1.39
-Parsing ... [/home/hanwen/musix/spacer/init/lily-init.ly[/home/hanwen/
-
- ... stuff left out here ...
-
- ] Documentation/twinkle.ly]
-Interpreting music ...[1] (time: 0.04 seconds)
-Preprocessing elements...
-Calculating column positions ... [2]
-Approximated: 1 lines, (with an average of 4.0 columns)
-Time: 0.01 seconds
-warning: Can not solve this casting problem exactly; revert to Word_wrap
-[2]Time: 0.00 seconds
-
-Postprocessing elements...
-TeX output to twinkle.tex ...
-)
-
-All has gone well; there were some warnings but no errors. The run
-resulted in output, a TeX file called file(twinkle.tex).
-
-file(TeX) is usually spelled TeX(). It is a batch program for
-typesetting text. It was developed by the great programmer and
-scientist Donald Knuth to typeset his famous bookseries em(The Art of
-Computer Programming). As you can see, TeX() can be adapted to do a
-lot more. whenlatex(In fact, the document that you are reading now was also
-produced with TeX().) COMMENT(ugh.)
-
-
-it()
- To do something useful with the output you have to run TeX() on it
- first. Run the command code(tex twinkle). The output should resemble this:
-verb(
-This is TeX, Version 3.14159 (C version 6.1)
-(twinkle.tex
-Babel <v3.6h> and hyphenation patterns for american, dutch, loaded.
-(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/lilyponddefs.tex
-(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/dyndefs.tex)
-(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/fetdefs.tex
-(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/feta20.tex)
-(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/lily-ps-defs.tex))) [1] )
-Output written on twinkle.dvi (1 page, 3084 bytes).
-Transcript written on twinkle.log.
-)
- The human translation is ``everything went OK, the result is one
- page long, and I put it in file(twinkle.dvi).''
-
-it()The file(twinkle.dvi) file is a description of how a piece of
-text looks when it is printed. You can view it, or print it. If you
-are using a Unix system equipped with X-Windows, then you can issue
-the command file(xdvi twinkle) to view the result. If this is not the
-case, consult your local TeX() guru on printing and viewing DVI files.
-What is in your window should approximately look like this:
-mudela()(
-\score {
- \melodic {
- c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4
- a''4 a''4 g''2
- }
- \paper { linewidth = 13.\cm; }
-}
-)
-
-it()
-If you want to print file(twinkle.dvi), you should invoke the command
-code(dvips twinkle). Running this command should generate a
-PostScript file called file(twinkle.ps). This file can be printed on
-any PostScript compatible printer. You should not use any other
-tools: the output from LilyPond contains fragments of PostScript which
-will not print correctly if you don't use PostScript. If your printer
-doesn't understand PostScript, you should check out GhostScript, a
-PostScript emulator.
-)
-
-
-
-The four-pass procedure sketched above is a bit clumsy. Moreover, the
-result is pretty crude: the page does not include prettily printed
-titles and if you are unlucky, the margins don't come out well. Jan
-Arne Fagertun wrote a tool to take the above steps out of your hands,
-make neat margins and print titling. The tool is called file(ly2dvi),
-and it should be on your system if you use Lily on a Unix platform.
-If you use file(ly2dvi), then you can do verb(ly2dvi twinkle.ly ) in
-stead of steps 2 and 3. You will feel the real advantage of using
-file(ly2dvi) when you add titling to the music. This is something
-that we will discuss in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:titling).
-
-
-COMMENT(This document does not cover all of Mudela. Due to technical details,
-the precise working of Mudela is coupled to the innards of LilyPond.
-If you really want to know all the details, your best bet would be to
-get the sources to LilyPond and read the parser and scanner source.
-They are in file(lilypond-x.y.z/lily/parser.yy) and
-file(lilypond-x.y.z/lily/lexer.ll).)
-
-
-
-sect(Chords)
-
-Up till now we have only considered music that was rather simple. All
-the music had notes going in one direction, from left to right, one
-note following the other. You might be wondering if this is all Lily
-can do, or whether it is possible to stack notes as well (creating
-em(chords)). Rest assured: we designed LilyPond while keeping in mind
-that she must be able to handle any notation construct that can be
-expressed conveniently. Of course we did not leave out chords.
-
-In Mudela you can form a chord of several notes by enclosing them in
-pointed parentheses, bind(i.e.)bind(langle())bind(and)rangle(). ASCII
-doesn't really have these delimiters, so Mudela uses the larger-than
-(code(>)) and smaller-than (code(<)) signs instead. For example, a
-D-major nop(chord)footnote(Recall what was said in the previous
-section about flats and sharps: the word code(fis) means an f sharp.)
-can be described by the following fragment:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- <d'8 fis'8 a'8 d''8>
-)
-
- Chords can be entered in the music in the same places that notes
-can. As an example we give a snippet of ``Twinkle Twinkle Little
-Star'' in chords. The chords may seem, slightly unconventional, but they
-only serve to show how chords work. We've aligned the chords
-in the input on their starting beat just to help you reading it.
-This layout does not influence the typesetting result in any way.
-
-mudela(verbatim, fragment)(
- c''4 c''4 <c''4 g''4> <c''4 e''4 g''4>
- <c''4 e''4 a''4> <b'4 d''4 a''4> <b'2 d''2 g''2>
- <a'4 d''4 f''4> <bes'4 d''4 f''4> <bes'4 c''4 e''4> <g'4 c''4 e''4>
- <e'4 a'4 d''4> <a4 g'4 cis''4> <d'2 f'2 d''2>
-)
-
-
-
-sect(Shortcuts for duration)
-
-If you typed the last example into a Mudela file, you will have
-noticed that the input has lots of repetitions. You will probably
-have made some errors with the right durations and number of
-octavation quotes.
-To save keystrokes and prevent errors Mudela
-has some handy shortcuts. The simplest is the shortcut for
-durations. You don't have to type the duration if it
-is the same as the last duration entered. This saves a considerable
-number of keystrokes, and thus reduces the potential for errors. The
-previous example can be reduced to verb(
- c''4 c'' <c'' g''> <c'' e'' g''>
- <c'' e'' a''> <b' d'' a''> <b'2 d'' g''>
- <a'4 d'' f''> <bes' d'' f''> <bes' c'' e''> <g' c'' e''>
- <e' a' d''> <a g' cis''> <d'2 f' d''>
-)
-
-
-If you entered this, you probably made some little errors with the
-right amount of quotes as well. To remedy this, mudela has another
-feature called `relative octaves', which reduces the amount of quotes
-needed. If you want to enter large pieces of music em(now) we
-recommend you make an excursion to
-bind(Section)ref(sec:relativeoctaves) and learn about relative
-octaves.
-
-
-
-sect(Comments)
-
-If you want to make some private notes about the Mudela code that you
-entered, you can do so by inserting comments into your file. The
-contents of these comments are ignored by LilyPond. Mudela has two comment
-styles: line comments and block comments. The line comment
-is introduced by the percent sign:
-verb(
- c''4
- c''4 % shouldn't this be a different pitch?
-)
-
-Block comments are enclosed in code(%{) and code(%}).
-
-verb(
- c''4
- %{
- Ludwig van Bavaria's original manuscript has an fffff dynamic sign.
- Clearly one can see the onset of paranoid schizophrenia in the
- composer from these subtle nuances in his writings.
- %}
- c''4
-)
-
-
-sect(Adding nuances: articulation and dynamics)
-
-Having just chords and notes does not give you real music. Real music
-has more liveliness to it: music can have articulation, dynamics
-(louder and softer), etc. This liveliness has notation, so LilyPond
-can print it. We'll start out by explaining how to obtain the
-smallest grains of nuance: the articulation of a single note. Articulation
-is entered by writing a dash and the name of the desired articulation
-mark. You have to add a backslash in front of the name to distinguish
-it from the name of a note. mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- c''4-\staccato
- c''4-\tenuto )
-
-Typing a lot of staccato notes in this syntax will get tedious very
-quickly. Therefore, Mudela has some handy abbreviations for
-articulation marks such as staccato and tenuto. They are shown in the
-following example:
-
-mudela()(
-\score{ \melodic {
- \property Voice.textstyle = typewriter
- c''4-._"c''4-." s4
- c''4--_"c''4--" s4
- c''4-+_"c''4-+" s4
- c''4-|_"c''4-|" s4
- c''4->_"c''4->" s4
- c''4-^_"c''4-\\^{ }" s4 }
- \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm; }})
-
-
-COMMENT(For a full list of supported articulation instructions, refer to the
-chapter on features, bind(Chapter)ref(features).)
-
-Text and digits for fingering can be entered in the same manner: add a
-dash and the text or digit to be printed:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- c''4-1 g''4-5 c''-"Sul tasto" )
-Currently, the meaning of the
-syntax `note-dash-digit/articulation/text' is just ``add a superscript to this
-note.'' This is not in line with our goal to em(define) music with
-Mudela. We hope that this will be fixed in a future version of the
-language. In the meantime you can abuse this: the super- and
-subscripts can be forced into up or down position respectively by entering an
-a caret (code(^)) or an underscore, code(_) instead of the dash:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- c'4-^ c'4^^ c'''4-^ c'''4_^
-)
-
-Dynamic markings are another way to add a nuance to a note. They are
-entered by adding the name for the dynamic sign after the note. You
-should not enter a dash between the name and the note.footnote(This
- is inconsistent. We hope that this will be fixed in a later
- version of the language.)
-mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
- c4 \ff c4 \fp c4 c4 \ppp c4 c4 \sfz
-)
-COMMENT(UGH)
-
-sect(Bridging the notes: beams, slurs and ties)
-
-Up till now most of the typesetting concerned simple fixed symbols
-only. Now we turn to variable symbols: symbols that run from one note
-to another. In LilyPond terminology, such a symbol is called a
-em(spanner). To print a spanner, you have to attach a marker to the
-note that begins it and to the one that ends it.
-
-
-The first example of such a symbol is the slur. For the slur, the
-start marker is the opening parenthesis. It won't be a surprise that
-the stopping marker is the closing parenthesis.
-For example:
-mudela(fragment,center,verbatim)( c'4( )c'4 )
-
-otice that the parentheses should be between the notes.footnote(The
-location of the parentheses might be changed in a future version of
-the language.)
-
-It is your job to make sure that each slur that you start also ends.
-If it doesn't end, then Bad Things are likely to happen. The slur is
-quite flexible: you can nest nop(slurs,)footnote(This is inconsistent when
-compared to the syntax for articulation hints. This will probably be
-fixed soon.) and you can connect a note with a slur on both the left and the
-right side:
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- c'4(( )c''4 )c'4( )g'4
-)
-
-Another spanner is the beam (see bind(Figure)ref(mud:beam)). It
-indicates the duration of the connected notes, and thus it acts like an
-extended version of the flag. Secondly, the pattern of
-left/right-pointing beams hints at the metric structure of the
-measure.
-
-
-latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h])
- center(
- mudela(fragment)([c'8 c'8] [c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16] [c'16. c'32 c'32 c'16.] )
- latexcommand(\caption{Some beams})
- label(mud:beam)
- )
-latexcommand(\end{figure})
-
-
-Strictly speaking, a beam is not a musical concept. The pattern of a
-beam can be derived from the structure of the time signature and the durations
-of the notes. It is merely a device that helps you understand the
-rhythms notated. Unfortunately, LilyPond is not smart enough to insert
-beams into your music on her own. You will have to instruct her by
-marking the starting and stopping point of the beam with `code([)' and
-`code(])' respectively, e.g.
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- [g'8 g'8]
-)
-
-LilyPond has code that guesses what the pattern should look like, so
-that you don't have to specify the beaming for complicated
-patterns.footnote(Unfortunately the algorithm used is not foolproof yet:
- code([c8. c32 c32]) will produce incorrect results.)
-
-Again, it is your responsibility to make sure that you end every beam
-that you start.
-
-A third spanner is similar to the slur: the tie. The tie looks like a
-slur, but a slur connects whole chords, whereas the tie connects
-note heads. Tied notes should be played as one long note.
-In analogy with TeX()'s tie (which ties together words with a
-space), LilyPond's tie is entered as a tilde, ~.
-mudela(verbatim,center,fragment)(c''1 ~ c''4)
-
-The input convention for the tilde is somewhat peculiar when used in
-conjunction with chords. Internally, the extra information that is
-represented by the tilde has to be attached to a note (or to a rest,
-for that matter). For this reason, you can't put the tilde between
-two chords (as in code( <c' g'> ~ <c' g'>)). The tilde sign must be
-directly after a note of the chords. It does not matter which
-one. The following example demonstrates this:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- <c'1 ~ g' es''> <c'4 g' es''>
-)
-
-sect(Commands)
-label(sec:commands)
-
-Up till now, we only printed notes, and correspondingly only entered
-notes. But notation contains many other constructs, constructs that
-help you with reading those notes. Examples of such constructs are
-clefs, time signatures, keys etc.
-
-If you look carefully at the example in
-bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1), you will notice that the output
-includes some bar lines and clefs, and that there are no references to
-those in the input. They were generated automatically.
-
-Not all such hints can be inserted automatically, and you can also
-override some of the settings. This can be done by inserting various
-commands between the music. The general form of these commands is
-center(
- em(keyword) sc(arguments)
-)
-
-em(keyword)s are words that have a special meaning to the parser of
-Mudela. Because the parser must be able to distinguish the keywords
-from note names, they have to be preceded by a so-called escape
-character, the backslash, `code(\)'. To separate the arguments from
-any notes that might follow the arguments, you have to end your
-command with a semicolon. An added benefit of this construction is
-that the commands stand out between your notes, because of the
-backslashes.
-
-So the general form actually is `code(\keyword argument argument ... ;)'
-Let us review these commands:
-
-description(
-dit(code(\clef) var(clefname)) This command sets the current clef for notation,
- i.e., a clef symbol is printed and the notes following this command
- are shifted vertically. The argument is a string, the name of the
- new clef. The default clef is the treble clef.
- mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \clef "bass"; c'4
- \clef "treble"; c'4
- \clef "alto"; c'4
- )
-dit(code(\key) var(pitch)) This command changes the current key signature. The
- key signature is printed at the start of every line. The argument
- is the name of the corresponding major key. The key of C-minor can
- thus be specified as `code(\key es)'.
-
-dit(code(\accidentals) var(pitchlist))
-
-This command changes the current key signature. The signature is
-given in the form of a list of accidentals, which can be useful for
-unconventional keys. The key of C-minor can be specified as
-`code(\accidentals bes es as)'. The command `code(\accidentals fis es
-bis)' provides a more exotic example.
-
-
-dit(code(\time) var(numerator)code(/)var(denominator))
- This command chages the current time signature. LilyPond uses the
- time signature to
- calculate where to place the bars that start a measure. These bars
- in turn are the places where a system can be broken into lines.
-
- The default value for this time signature is common time (4/4). You
- can also tell this from the Twinkle ``Twinkle Little
-Star'' example in bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1). This
-song actually has a 2/4 time signature, so a metrically more correct
- version would start with as follows:
- mudela(fragment,center,verbatim)(
- \time 2/4; c'4 c' g' g'
- )
-
-
-dit(code(\cadenza) var(togglevalue)) When typesetting music without a
-regular meter (such as an ad libitum cadenza), no bar lines should be
-printed. In LilyPond you can achieve this by issuing the command
-`code(\cadenza 1)': it turns off the automatically
-generated bar lines.
-
-You switch them on again with `code(\cadenza 0)', and then a bar line
-is printed. LilyPond will act as if you are again at the start of a
-measure.
-
-dit(code(\bar) var(bartype))
- This command lets you print special bar lines, such as repeats. You
- can also use it to allow line breaks when entering cadenzas. The
- argument var(bartype) is a string that describes what kind of bar line to print.
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \bar "|:"; c'4 \bar ":|:"; c'4 \bar ":|"; c'4 \bar "||";
- c'4 \bar "empty"; c'4 \bar "|.";
-)
- The command `code(\bar "empty")' does not create any visible bar
- line, but it does tells LilyPond to allow a linebreak
- at that position.
-
-dit(code(\partial) var(duration)) some music starts with a measure that
-isn't fully filled, a so-called upstep. The code(\partial) command
-allows you to make
-upsteps. The argument is a duration similar to the duration of a note.
-Example:
- mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \time 4/4;
- \partial 4;
- [d'8 dis'] e' c''4 e'8 c''4
- )
-
- dit(code(\grouping) var(durationslist)) sets the metric structure of the measure.
- Its effect can best be shown by an example:
- mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \time 5/16;
- \grouping 16*3 16*2;
- [c'8 c'16 c'8]
- \grouping 16*2 16*3;
- [c'8 c'16 c'8]
- \grouping 16*5 ;
- [c'8 c'16 c'8]
- )
-
-In practice, you won't be needing this command very often: the
-grouping is switched automatically when you issue a code(\time)
-command. It is set to a combination of groups
-of 2 and 3 beats, with as many groups of
-3 as possible (in other words: 4/4 is divided in two times two beats
-(2+2), 8/8 in 3+3+2)
-)
-
-The commands that are described above aren't really music, but they
-can be used in the same places as notes. This makes the grammar of the
-language simpler. It is possible to put a command into a chord.
-For example, the following two snippets of Mudela produce identical output.
-verb(
- <c4 e g \time 2/4;>
- \time 2/4; <c4 e g>
-)
-
-
-
-sect(Complex music: more than one staff)
-label(tutorial:more-staffs)
-
-
-Now we explain how to typeset music that runs in multiple staffs.
-Consider the following---somewhat unrealistic---example:
-
-mudela(fragment)(
- \type GrandStaff <e'4 {\clef bass; g4^""} >
-)
-
- The music consists of two notes. Perhaps this is sheet music for a
-piano player, and one note is meant to be played with the left hand,
-and the other with the right hand. That music would sound the same if
-it were written as a single chord on a single staff, i.e.,
-mudela(fragment)(
- <g4 e'4>
-)
-
-
-This is another example where we can see that there can be a difference
-between a musical idea, and the way it is expressed in notation.
-
-The Mudela construct for multiple staffs reflects the similarity
-between the two examples: to get multiple staffs in Mudela you enter a
-chord, with an additional instruction to tell LilyPond that the chord
-does not represent notes stacked together, but staffs stacked
-together.
-
-If a piece of music is to be interpreted as a staff, then this can be
-expressed with the code(\type) construct. The following input says
-``the quarter note with pitch e should be put on a staff.''
-
-verb(
- \type Staff e'4
-)
-
-The same can be done for the other note, i.e.,
-
-verb(
- \type Staff g4
-)
-
-If you want to stack these staffs, you must create a chord of both:
-
-verb(
- < \type Staff e'4
- \type Staff g4
- >
-)
-
-This looks reasonable, but the effect of this input is not what you
-might expect (try it!). When interpreting this chord LilyPond will
-start with the first entry. She'll look for a (nameless) staff. Such a
-staff is not found, so it is created. On this staff the code(e) note
-is put. When the second code(\type) entry is read, LilyPond will
-start looking for a nameless staff. The staff that contains the
-code(e) is found, and the code(g) is put there as well.
-
-The correct solution is to label both code(\type) constructs with
-different names, for example code(trebleStaff) and code(bassStaff).
-This makes LilyPond distinguish between them, and create two staffs:
-
-mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
- < \type Staff = trebleStaff e'4
- \type Staff = bassStaff g4
- >
-)
-
-The names that you choose do not matter just as long as they are
-different. This is almost right, except for the brace at the left and
-the clef of the second staff. The bass clef will be taken care of in
-the next chapter. If you want a brace, then you have to tell LilyPond
-that the chord you just formed is to be interpreted as a so-called
-grand staff. This is also done with the code(\type) command.
-mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
- \type GrandStaff <
- \type Staff = treblestaff e'4
- \type Staff = bassstaff g4
- >
-)
-
-sect(Appending instead of stacking: sequential music)
-label(tutorial:voice)
-
-The previous section dealt with a pretty hypothetical situation: sheet
-music with two staffs and each staff containing only one single note.
-In real-life situations staffs contain more than one note. They
-contain music that has to be played in sequence. A staff can contain
-a em(voice). We haven't learned how to make a voice yet: we need a
-new construct to express this notion of `voice'.
-
-The construct is called em(sequential) music. A list of musical
-objects (e.g., notes, chords or commands) can be made into sequential
-music by enclosing the list in braces; for example:
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- { c'4 c'4 }
-)
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- { <c'4 e'> <e' g'> }
-)
-
-
-We could have called this construct more colloquially `voice', but
-this would cause confusion later on, when a second kind of voice
-enters the scene. Similar confusion might arise from the word
-`chord', therefore from now on, we will talk about `simultaneous
-music', when we refer to items enclosed in < and >.
-
-
-The notion of a em(new) construct needs some explanation: we have been
-using sequential music all the time, except that it was hidden in the
-red tape in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:introduction).
-
-
-
-If we want to put whole voices onto a staff, then we have to
-substitute sequential music for the single notes in the example from
-the previous section. A code(\clef) command in the second piece of
-sequential
-music will also set the clef in
-the bass staff.
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \type GrandStaff <
- \type Staff = treblestaff { e'4 f'}
- \type Staff = bassstaff {\clef "bass"; g a }
- >
-)
-
-COMMENT(You can nest simultaneous music and chords in any way you want. If
-you are interested in the entire story, you should consult
-bind(Chapter)ref(chap:features), which has a grammar in
-bind(Section)ref(sec:grammar).)
-
-sect(Notation context)
-
-This section is about translation contexts, a topic of LilyPond that
-is somewhat advanced. You don't have to understand this to use
-LilyPond to print simple music. If you don't want to typeset fancy
-polyphonic music or tweak the LilyPond notation engine, you can skip
-the next two sections.
-
-In bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs) it was explained, that there
-are more ways to notate a simple chord: as a single voice on a single
-staff or in multiple staffs (and we'll soon see, that you can typeset
-it as multiple voices on a staff). Obviously the concept of staff is not
-really something musical. But what is it then?
-
-
-The most simplistic explanation is: a staff is a peculiarity of the
-notation system. In other words, a staff is a graphic device, a
-special picture of five lines on which one can print note heads. To
-avoid confusion, we will call this view on the concept of staff
-`staff symbol' from now on.
-
-
-There is more to it than meets the eye and mind. A staff
-contains---besides a staff symbol--- some more components:
-itemize(
-it()A staff can a have a key signature (printed at the left)
-it()A staff has bar lines
-it()A staff has a clef (printed at the left)
-)
-To explain what a staff really is, we'll try to print music without
-these components. If these components aren't printed, it is still
-possible to print music:
-mudela()(\score{
-\melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
-\paper {
- linewidth = -1.;
- Staff = \translator {
- \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
-
- defaultclef = violin;
-
- \consists "Timing_engraver";
- \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
-
- \accepts "Voice";
- }
- }
-})
-
-As you can see, one can still make out the general form of the melody
-and the rhythm that is to be played, but the notation is difficult to
-read and the musical information is not complete. The stress pattern
-in the notes can't be deduced from this output. For this, we need a
-time signature:
-
-mudela()(
-\score {
- \melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
- \paper{
- linewidth = -1.;
- Staff = \translator {
- \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
- defaultclef = violin;
- \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
- \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
- \accepts "Voice";
- }
- }
-})
-
-Technically speaking you know where the strong and weak beats are, but
-it is difficult to find them quickly. Bar lines help you in finding
-the location within the measure of the notes:
-mudela()(
-\score {
- \melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
- \paper{
- linewidth = -1.;
- Staff = \translator {
- \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
- defaultclef = violin;
- \consists "Bar_engraver";
- \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
- \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
- \accepts "Voice";
- }
- }
-})
-
-We can remedy part of the difficulties with reading pitches by adding a staff
-symbol:
-
-mudela()(\score{
- \melodic\relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4
-a'4 f4 e c d2 } \paper {
- linewidth = -1.;
- Staff = \translator {
- \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
-
- defaultclef = violin;
- \consists "Bar_engraver";
- \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
- \consists "Staff_sym_engraver";
- \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
-
- \accepts "Voice";
- }
- }
-})
-
-This makes the output decidedly easier to read, but you still don't
-know what the pitches of the notes above are. So this is still not
-enough. But suppose you see the following notation:
-mudela()(\score {
- \melodic \relative c' {\clef alto; \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
-\paper {
- linewidth = -1.;
- Staff = \translator {
- \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
-
- defaultclef = violin;
- \consists "Bar_engraver";
- \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
- \consists "Clef_engraver";
- \consists "Staff_sym_engraver";
- \consists "Timing_engraver";
- \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
-
- \accepts "Voice";
- }
- }
-})
-
-Now you know the pitch of the notes: you look at the start of the line
-and see a clef, with this clef, you can determine the notated pitches.
-You have found the em(context) in which the notation is to be
-interpreted!
-
-So the context determines the relationship between a piece of music
-and its notation: you, the reader, use context to deduce music from
-notation. Because LilyPond is a notation ``writer'' instead of a
-reader, context works the other way around for Lily: with context a
-piece of music can be converted to notation.
-The components of a staff form context, and context is needed to read
-and write notation. This motivates the following definition.
-
-quote(
-A bf(notation context) is a conversion from music to notation.
-)
-
-The example focused mainly on on staffs, but a staff is not the only
-type of notation context. Notation contexts may be nested: you can
-print polyphonic music by putting multiple `Voice' contexts in one
-`Staff' context. The arguments of the code(\type) command (Staff,
-GrandStaff) were in fact all names of different contexts.
-The notions of ``current clef'' and ``current position within the
-measure'' are all properties of notation contexts. Commands like
-code(\clef) and code(\cadenza) change these properties.
-
-
-The following is a list of the contexts that are supported by
-LilyPond:
-description(
-
-dit(Voice) The code(Voice) context is a context that corresponds to a
- voice on a staff. This context handles the conversion of noteheads,
- dynamic signs, stems, beams, super- and subscripts, slurs, ties and rests
-
-dit(Staff) The code(Staff) context handles clefs, bar lines, keys,
- accidentals. A code(Staff) context can contain multiple code(Voice)
- contexts.
-
-dit(RhythmicStaff) The code(RhythmicStaff) context is like the staff,
- but much simpler: the notes are printed on one line, and pitches are
- ignored. code(RhythmicStaff) can contain code(Voice) contexts.
-
-dit(GrandStaff) A code(GrandStaff) context contains code(Staff)
- contexts, and it adds a brace to the output at the
- nop(left.)footnote(This is a major deficiency in the current
- implementation. Currently stems,
- slurs and beams cannot be printed across two staffs.
-In reality, a grand staff is a hybrid of one big staff and two stacked staffs.)
-
- A code(GrandStaff) context can contain multiple
- code(Staff)s. Typically, it will contain two code(Staff)s, one
- treble staff, and one bass staff. The bar lines of the contained
- staffs are connected vertically.
-
-dit(StaffGroup) A code(StaffGroup) context contains code(Staff) or
- code(Lyrics) contexts, and prints a bracket at the left. The bar
- lines in the participating staffs are connected.
-
-dit(Lyrics) As its name suggests, The code(Lyrics) context deals with
- typesetting lyrics. This topic will be covered in
- bind(Section)ref(tutorial:lyrics).
-
-dit(Score) The code(Score) context is the toplevel context: no context can
- contain a code(Score) context. The code(Score) context handles the
- administration of time signatures. It also makes sure that items
- such as clefs, time signatures, and key-signatures are aligned across staffs.
-
- The code(Score) can contain code(Staff), code(StaffGroup), code(Lyrics), code(GrandStaff) and
- code(RhythmicStaff) contexts.
-
-COMMENT(do ChoireStaff)
-)
-
-
- Later on, in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:engravers) we will
-explain how you can create your own contexts.
-
-If you are familiar with structured documents (like HTML, SGML or
-LaTeX()), you might see the analogy of a context with a stylesheet: a
-stylesheet is neither presentation nor information, but rather a
-recipe em(how) a specific piece of information should be presented.
-Analogously, a notation context is neither music nor notation, but the
-conversion between the two. The big difference with text is that in
-music notation the elements provided by context are essential to
-understanding what is notated.
-
-
-
-sect(Polyphonic music (or: Notation context properties))
-
-In the last section we explained that a notation context can have
-properties that influence the conversion from music to notation. A
-simple example of such a property is the clef: the type of clef partially
-determines the vertical position of note heads in a staff. Some of
-these properties can be modified by commands such as code(\clef) and
-code(\time). But there is more: notation contexts also have
-properties are settable in a generic fashion. We will demonstrate
-this feature by printing multiple voices on a staff.
-
-In polyphonic (keyboard) music and orchestral scores often more than
-one voice is printed on one staff. We'll explain how to achieve this
-effect with LilyPond. The effect is not unlike the two stacked staffs
-from bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs), except that we don't want
-to stack staffs but voices. Thus, the general template is the following:
-verb(
- \type Staff <
- \type Voice = one ...
- \type Voice = two ...
- >
-)
-
-On the ellipsis there should be music going from left to right, in
-otherr words, there should be sequential music, notes enclosed in
-braces. Let us try the following simple melodies:
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-\type "Staff" <
- \type "Voice" = "one" { r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "two" { g'2 f'4 e'4 }
->)
-
-As you can see the result is not quite perfect. The notes on the last
-two beats look like plain chords and not like separate voices. What
-really happened was that the stems of the upper and lower voices were
-printed on top of each other. If you have tried running this example, you will probably
-have noticed a complaint about ``too many
-clashing notecolumns'' during the LilyPond run.
-This complaint refers to the overlapping stems.
-
-To remedy this, engravers traditionally make the stems of the upper
-and lower voice point in different directions: the stems of the lower
-voice point down, and the stems of the upper up, as shown in
-bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig).
-
-Surely the direction of a single stem is a property of the stem as a
-graphical object. But the fact that all of the stems in a voice point
-in the same direction is not directly graphical. Since this is a
-property shared by all the stems in the voice, it is logical to
-consider this property to be a property of the context code(Voice).
-And this is how it's done in LilyPond: the context code(Voice) has an
-attribute whose value is the direction to use
-for stems. You can change it to `up'
-by issuing the following phrase:footnote(The name code(ydirection) is
-no mistake. The property also controls the up/down directions of
-super-/subscripts, slurs, ties, etc.)
-
-verb(
- \property "Voice"."ydirection" = "1"
-)
-
-This command should be read as ``change the property called
-code(ydirection) within the current code(Voice) context to the value
-code(-1).'' For the property code(ydirection) the value code(1) means
-`up', and code(-1) means `down'. The proper way to code the
-polyphonic example is given in bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig).
-
-latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h])
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
- \type "Staff" <
- \type "Voice" = "one" {
- \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
- r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "two" {
- \property Voice.ydirection = "-1"
- g'2 f'4 e'4 }
- >
-)
- latexcommand(\caption{multiple voices})
- label(tutorial:multi-voice-fig)
-latexcommand(\end{figure})
-
-Other properties can also be set, and they can be within different
-contexts. In general, you can set a property by specifying
-code(\property) var(contexttype)code(.)var(propertyname) code(=)
-var(value). Both var(ContextType), var(PropertyName) and var(Value)
-should be strings.
-
-The effect of a property is pretty much hardwired into the
-implementation (and thus subject to change), so we will not deal with
-all the possible properties in detail. Among other characteristics that
-can be set are the layout of slurs and beams. The initialisation file
-file(property.ly) explains most properties.
-
-We conclude this section with another example of a context property.
-Polyphonic music that has three or four voices can't be printed by
-simply changing the directions of the stems for each voice, obviously.
-Traditionally, some chords are shifted horizontally to print if this many
-voices have to be printed.
-LilyPond can also do this, and the property that controls the
-horizontal shifting is called code(hshift). The notes in a
-code(Voice) context that has code(hshift) set to a true value (i.e.,
-non-zero or non-empty), will be shifted horizontally in the case of a
-collision. The following example demonstrates the effect.
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \type "Staff" <
- \type "Voice" = "one" {
- \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
- r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "two" {
- \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
- \property Voice.hshift = 1
- g'2 f'4 e'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "three" {
- \property Voice.ydirection = "-1"
- [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4
- }
- >
-)
-
-sect(Lyrics)
-label(tutorial:lyrics)
-
-Now for something completely different: Lyrics. Lyrics are also
-considered to be music, although a lyric by itself does not have any
-pitch. Producing lyrics has two aspects. First, you have to enter the
-text, i.e., the syllables along with their durations.
-After this, you have to specify how to convert these to graphics.
-
-Lyrics consist of syllables, which are strings together with
-durations. Previously we only entered note names, so for entering
-lyrics we have to instruct LilyPond that what we enter are not note
-names but words---or rather: strings. This instruction is the keyword
-code(\lyric). After entering this keyword you can enter a musical
-construct---sequential music, simultaneous music, code(\type)
-entries, etc.--- but with syllables in stead of pitches. For example:
-verb( \lyric { 'got8 me on my knees4, Le-8 lie! })
-
-The effect of code(\lyric) can be compared with the effect of the
-doublequote character, code("), for it also changes the lexical
-meaning of spaces and characters. This mode is another example of a
-handy input feature of the language.
-
-Next comes the conversion to notation. LilyPond can't (yet) figure
-out that lyrics need different treatment than notes. As a result, the
-default conversion will try to put the text you entered as note heads
-onto a staff, and this will fail. This default must be overriden with
-a code(\type) keyword. Printing syllables of text in a line is done
-by a context called code(Lyrics). You can select this context with
-the code(\type) keyword. Here is a simple example:
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got8 me on my knees,4 Le-8 lie! })
-
-The result is technically more or less correct, but without a melody it
-just doesn't work, so let's add a blob of cream:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- <
- \type Staff { c''8. c''16 bes'8. a'16 g'4 f'8 g'4. }
- \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got8. me16 on8. my16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4. }
- >
-)
-
-The strings that makes up each syllable in the lyrics block are passed
-along to TeX() verbatim, so if you are proficient with TeX() you can
-do various nifty things. Just keep in mind that a syllable either
-starts with a letter (a character in the range `code(a)' to `code(z)'
-or `code(A)' to `code(Z)'), or it is a string enclosed quotes. It ends
-with either a number for the duration, or a space. A last feature
-that should be mentioned is the space-lyric: if you want to enter
-a single ``syllable'' that consists of multiple words, i.e., words
-separated by spaces, you should use an
-underscore instead of a space. All these tricks are demonstrated in
-the following example:
-
-COMMENT( urg
-\type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_m\textbf{e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.}
-\type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_m{\bf e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.}
-)
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(<
- \type Staff { c''8. c''16 bes'8. a'16 g'4 f'8 g'4. }
- \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_me4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 "3s,"4 Le-8 lie!4.}
->
-)
-
-The spacing in the above example is a bit skewed because Lily can't
-tell that the long syllables you entered are not ordinary characters,
-but expand to really small symbols.
-
-
-
-
-COMMENT(Rood is de kleur van geluk.)
-COMMENT(Dat geldt ook voor haar.)
-
-
-sect(Toplevel Mudela)
-
-Now the time has come to unravel the red tape that we have hidden from
-you in the introduction. Mudela has a hierarchical structure for we
-have seen that sequential and simultaneous music can be nested.
-Mudela also has other `blocks' that can be nested. The general syntax
-for a block is code(\keyword { ... }).
-
-When you run LilyPond, what happens is that you define music, and
-specify one (or more) conversions to apply to that music, for example
-a conversion to notation. This is done by putting the definition of
-the music and the definition of the conversion together in a
-code(\score) block, e.g.,
-verb(
-\score {
- % ... music ...
- \paper {}
-})
-
-This is almost the context that should be around all
-of the previous examples. The precise context reads thus:
-verb(
-\score {
- \melodic { ... }
- \paper {}
-})
-On the ellipsis, you entered what shown as the example input.
-You can see that in the
-above example, the code(\melodic { ... }) forms the music, the
-code(\paper {}) is a conversion to paper (notation, that is). The
-code(\paper) definition is copied from a default definition
-(which is in the initialisation file file(paper16.ly)).
-The paper part also contains
-the definition of the contexts.
-
-The keyword code(\melodic) is analogous to the code(\lyric) keyword. It
-will switch the tokenizer into a mode that interprets plain words as
-note names. If it can't recognize the words as a note name, it will
-assume that they are strings. That is the reason why you can write
-code(\clef bass) in stead of code(\clef "bass"); most of the strings
-in code(\melodic) mode can be written without quotes.
-
-The braces that you see after the code(\melodic) keyword are the
-braces that are around sequential music. Because of these braces, the
-sequences of notes in our simple examples were sequential (and not
-simultaneous). As a result the notes were printed from left to right,
-and not stacked.
-
-sect(Identifiers)
-
-
-Now that we are comfortable with the toplevel entries in a mudela
-file, we can investigate some more of the recreations on toplevel, in
-particular em(identifiers). Generally you can define an identifier by
-entering code(identifierName = ... )
-where there can be a variety of things on the ellipsis.
-
-Here is a (partial) list of what you can abbreviate with identifiers
-at top-level.
-itemize(
-it()The code(\score) block
-it()The code(\paper) block
-it()The code(\midi) block (to be explained in
- bind(Section)ref(tutorial:sound))
-it()Music (sequential music, simultaneous music etc.)
-it()Durations
-it()Strings
-it()Translators (to be explained in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:engravers))
-it()Integers
-it()Reals
-)
-
-When you refer
-to the abbreviated entity, you must precede code(identifierName)
-with a backslash, i.e., code(\identifierName). For example:
-mudela(verbatim)(
- czerny = \melodic { [c16 g e g] }
- \score {
- \melodic \type GrandStaff <
- { c''2 g''2 }
- { \clef bass; \czerny \czerny \czerny \czerny}
- >
- \paper {
- linewidth = -1.0;
- stem_length = 12.0*\internote;
- }
- }
-)
-
-
-
-Another interesting feature of this example are the assignments within
-the paper block. Some blocks, such as code(\paper), have a scope of
-their own. In the case of the code(\paper) block, these variables
-influence the characteristics of the output. As is shown, you can
-tune quantities like the stemlength, and enter simple expressions.
-The purpose of the negative linewidth is to prevent the music from
-being justified. The identifiers that are meaningful are for the
-paper block is strongly implementation dependent, so they will not be
-listed here. Moreover, since most of the values are predefined to
-sensible defaults, there usually is no need to tune these values.
-
-Recall the properties of a context, that could be set with
-code(\property). It is a very general mechanism to tune the output of
-the music, that is neatly separated from the real music.
-Unfortunately, it is not convenient to type or read, and the precise
-effect of a setting property isn't always apparent from its
-definition. To remedy this, we can use an identifier to capture the
-meaning of a code(\property).
-
-mudela(verbatim)(
-stemup = \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
-stemdown = \property Voice.ydirection = "-1"
-shift = \property Voice.hshift = "1"
-\score {
- \type "Staff" \melodic <
- \type "Voice" = "one" {
- \stemup
- r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "two" {
- \stemup
- \shift
- g'2 f'4 e'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "three" {
- \stemdown
- [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4
- }
- >
- \paper{ linewidth = -1.0\pt; }
-}
-)
-
-Several abbreviations like code(\stemup) are defined in the
-standard initialisation file file(property.ly). Setting or changing
-context properties can have a similar effect as the commands that were
-discussed in bind(Section)ref(sec:commands). Don't be fooled by the
-similarity in appearance between a declared property-setting entry
-and a real command. Real commands are hardcoded into the language
-and they have to be terminated by semicolons.
-
-You can also use identifiers to break up the heavy nesting that can occur
-in the code(\score) block. Another useful application is
-parametrisation of the music: if you use identifiers in the
-code(\score) block, you can make variations of the music by simply
-redefining those identifiers. One particular application of this is
-part extraction: by using identifiers and redefining them, one can
-print extracted parts and a full orchestral score from the same
-music definition.
-
-
-
-sect(Sound output)
-label(tutorial:sound)
-
-You get output by combining music with definition a conversion to
-output. Up till now we have only focused on the graphic output of
-traditional engraving. But there is no reason why that should be the
-only form of output for music. LilyPond currently supports one other
-conversion: the conversion from abstract music to sound. You can have
-LilyPond play the music that you entered. The format that is used
-for this output is MIDI.
-
-The only information that you need to enter is the
- nop(tempo)footnote(Unfortunately,
-this the only thing that can be tuned at this
-time. This is a limitation: the tempo of music can vary throughout
-the music.) for the performance. The syntax for the tempo is
-code(\tempo )var(duration) = var(beatsperminute);), for example:
-verb(
-\score {
- ...music...
- \midi { \tempo 4 = 76; }
-}
-)
-
-The most useful purpose of this sound output is to prooflisten your
-files: typing errors (especially if they involve accidentals) stand
-out when you listen.
-The output was implemented in a very rudimentary manner, so it is
-probably not worth listening to for any other reason.
-
-
-sect(Contexts revisited: engravers)
-label(tutorial:engravers)
-
-As was promised, we will now take a dive into the more wizardrous parts
-of LilyPond: redefining (notation) contexts. We previously explained
-that a context
-itemize(
-it()is a conversion from music to notation,
-it()can contain other contexts
-it()handles specific notation constructs
-)
-
-This characterization almost automatically explains what the definition of a
-context should look like:
-itemize(
-it()It should be part of the ``notation output definition,'' i.e., the
- code(\paper) block
-it()
- It should contain a specification of what other contexts may be contained
- in the context we're defining.
-it()
- It should contain a list of the notation constructs to be
- handled.
-)
-
-In practice, the context definition
-looks like this:
-verb(
-\translator
-{
- \type "Engraver_group_engraver";
- \accepts "...";
- \accepts "...";
- \accepts "...";
-
- \consists " ... ";
- \consists " ... ";
- \consists " ... ";
-
- propertyname = "value";
- propertyname = "value";
-
-} )
-
- This is encoded by the
-
-The code(\translator) keyword opens the block for translation (or
-context) definition. The code(\type) keyword explains to Lily that
-the context should be formed by taking an (empty) instance of
-code(Engraver_group_engraver). The code(Engraver_group_engraver) is a
-C++ class from the source code to Lily. The code(\accepts) entries
-explain what kind of contexts this context could contain. If we were
-to define a context for a staff, the definition would typically
-contain code(\accepts "Voice";).
-
-The code(\consists) entries specify which notation constructs should
-be handled. This needs a little explanation: LilyPond contains the
-code for quite a large number of basic building blocks for notation
-generation, and each building block handles only one notation
-construct. The name of such a building block is `engraver'. You can
-specify which notation construct a context should handle by specifying
-which engravers should be part of the context. The code(\consists
-"Foobar") entry really means ``add an instance of code(Foobar) to the
-translation group.''
-
-
-For example if this context should print time signatures, the definition
-should include `code(\consists "Time_signature_engraver";)'. Again
-code(Time_signature_engraver) is a class from the source code of LilyPond.
-
-
-
-Finally, one can pre-set some properties in a context definition.
-
-As a practical example, we will show you how to typeset polymetric
-music, i.e., music where the meter can differ for each staff. The
-solution is not very complicated: normally all timing information
-(time signature, rhythmic grouping) is synchronised across each staff. In
-LilyPond this is expressed by having only one registration for timing
-information for all staffs. To be precise, there is only one
-code(Timing_engraver), and it is located in the top level context, the
-code(Score) context.
-
-All staffs use the information in the global code(Timing_engraver)
-for generating bar lines and time signatures. In polymetric music, this timing
-information can be different for every staff, so we should redefine
-the code(Staff) context to include and the code(Score) context to exclude the
-code(Timing_engraver).
-
-mudela(verbatim)(
-polymetricpaper = \paper {
- Score = \translator {
- \type Score_engraver;
- \consists "Score_priority_engraver";
- \consists "Priority_horizontal_align_engraver";
- \consists "Vertical_align_engraver";
- % \consists "Timing_engraver"; % removed Timing_engraver
- \accepts "Staff";
- }
-
- Staff = \translator {
- \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
-
- defaultclef = violin;
-
- \consists "Bar_engraver";
- \consists "Clef_engraver";
- \consists "Key_engraver";
- \consists "Local_key_engraver";
- \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
- \consists "Timing_engraver"; % added Timing_engraver
- \consists "Staff_sym_engraver";
- \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
-
- \accepts "Voice";
- }
-}
-\score {
- \melodic <
- \type Staff = one { \time 2/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
- \type Staff = two { \time 3/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
- >
- \paper { \polymetricpaper
- linewidth = -1.;
- }
-}
-)
-
-As you can see, we used the identifier code(polymetricpaper) to break
-up the large score block. More of these context definitions appear in
-the standard initialisation file file(engraver.ly).
-
-sect(Urtexts and context selection)
-label(tutorial:urtext)
-
-In bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs), we have shown you how to make
-multiple staffs, and explained that you have to label every staff (or
-more precisely: different contexts), to make sure that new ones are
-created when you need them. In this section, the real power of this
-mechanism will unveiled.
-
-By naming other contexts that you create, you can reference other contexts
-than the current context from within the music. For example, from within the music that you
-enter for staff code(One), one could enter a small piece of music,
-and send it to staff code(Two), e.g.,
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- <
- \type Staff = one { c''4 \type Staff = two { c4 c4 } c''4 }
- \type Staff = two { \clef bass; g,4 g,4 g,4 g,4 }
- >
-)
-
-
-Another useful application of this feature is making Urtexts.
-em(Urtext) is the German word for `original text'. The Urtext
-edition of a piece of music, is an edition that reflects the original
-writing of the composer. Such editions are useful for musicologists,
-and performers that want to perform authentic interpretations. However,
-for mere mortals, the Urtext can be quite hard to read. It might not
-contain fingering and beaming, and typically it is full of footnotes.
-Moreover, common interpretations may have emerged---after the composer
-died. For this reason, the music that can be had as Urtext usually is also
-available in enhanced and edited editions.
-
-The mechanism of context selection can be used to fabricate an Urtext
-and an edited edition from em(one source). We will use the first few
-bars of bind(J.)bind(S.)Bach's lovely Cello suite bind(no.)I to
-demonstrate this. The example makes heavy use of space rests: a space
-rest is a like a rest that doesn't print anything. It can be used as
-a placeholder, to attach articulation marks to. It is entered as a
-note with the name code(s).
-
-mudela(verbatim)(
- bach = \melodic { [c16 g e' d'] [e' g e' g] }
-
- staffStuff = \melodic { \clef bass; \time 4/4; s1 \bar "|."; }
-
- slursOne = \melodic { s16( s s s s16 s s )s }
- slursTwo = \melodic { s16-. s s() s s16() s s ()s }
-
- \score{
- { < \type Voice = celloVoice { \bach \bach }
- \type Voice = celloVoice { \slursOne \slursOne }
- \staffStuff
- >
- <
- \type Voice = celloVoice { \bach \bach }
- \type Voice = celloVoice { \slursTwo \slursTwo }
- \staffStuff
- >
- }
- \paper {}
- }
-)
-
- The slurs that you define should be put on the music that is defined
-by the code(\bach) identifier. By labeling a code(Voice) context, and
-directing both the articulation and the notes to that same code(Voice)
-context, the articulation is put over the right notes.
-
-
-sect(Transposing)
-label(tutorial:more-grammar)
-
-COMMENT(In this section, we will complete the grammar for Music that was
-sketched earlier. )
-One of the things that you can do with music is
-em(transposing) it. If you want to transpose a piece of music, then
-you should prefix the keyword code(\transpose) along with the pitch
-(relative to the central C) for the transposition.footnote(the
-code(\type Staff) is to make sure that no separate staffs are created
-for the code(\scale) and code(\transpose cis' \scale) part.)
-
-
-mudela(verbatim)(
-scale = \melodic \relative c' { [c8 d e f] }
-\score {
- \melodic {
- \type Staff { \scale \transpose cis' \scale }
- }
- \paper { linewidth = -1.0; }
-})
-
-
-sect(Staff switching)
-
-We have seen that contexts can be nested. This means that they form a
-tree. It is possible to edit this tree: for example, a code(Voice)
-context can be taken out of a code(Staff) context, and put into
-another. This has the effect of the voice switching staffs (something
-that often happens in keyboard music). The syntax for this operation
-with these particular contexts is code(\translator Staff = newStaffName).
-
-The effect is analogous to the first example in section
-ref(tutorial:urtext), but with the code(\translator) construction it
-is possible to split the real music and the commands that determine in
-which staff the music is printed. For example:
-
-mudela(verbatim)(
-
-% real music
-aVoice = \type Voice = voiceA \melodic { c''4 c4 c4 c''4 }
-bVoice = \type Voice = voiceB \melodic { g,4 g,4 g,4 g,4 }
-
-% staff switching stuff
-switch = \type Voice = voiceA \melodic { s4 \translator Staff = staffB s4
- s4 \translator Staff = staffA s4 }
-
-\score {
- <
- \type Staff = staffA < \aVoice \switch >
- \type Staff = staffB < \bVoice \clef bass; >
- >
- \paper { linewidth = -1.; }
-}
-)
-
-Don't try to switch staffs when you are in the middle of a slur or
-beam, though. It doesn't work yet.
-
-sect(Hairy durations: triplets)
-
-In the previous section we explained an operation that changes the
-pitches of music, transposition. In this section we will explain an
-operation that modifies the duration of the notes that you enter.
-When notes are part of a triplet, then the real of duration of the
-notes are 2/3 part of what their shape indicates:
-mudela(fragment)(
-\[/3 c'4 c'4 c'4 \]/1
-)
-
-To support this notion, Mudela allows you to modify the duration of a
-note by multiplication or division. A code(c'4) note that would be in a
-triplet is written as code(c'4*2/3). If you sequence a few of these
-notes, you get a triplet.footnote(We added a normal staff in the example to
-show the difference.)
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-< \type Staff = staffA { c'8*2/3 c'8*2/3 c'8*2/3 c'4}
- \type Staff = staffB { c''8 c''8 c''4 } >)
-
-LilyPond knows that these notes are no normal eighth notes, but the
-reader doesn't yet. To help the reader a beam or a bracket with a `3'
-should be printed. The special beam command `code([2/3)' and the
-matching close beam `code(]1/1)' will take care of that, and
-they also abbreviate the code(*2/3) part. If you want brackets in
-stead of beams, you can use `code(\[2/3])' and `code(\]1/1)'.
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-< \type Staff = staffA {
- [2/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]1/1
- \[2/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 \]1/1
- }
- \type Staff = staffB { [c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8] }
->)
-
-Other tuplets can be entered in the same way.
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-< \type Staff = staffA {
- \time 7/8;
- [7/6 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]1/1
- }
- \type Staff = staffB {
- \time 7/8;
- [c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8] } >
-)
-
-For your convenience, code([2/3) can be further abbreviated to code([/3), and
-you can abbreviate code(]1/1) on the closing beam marker to code(]/1).
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-< \type Staff = staffA {
- [/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]/1 c'4
- }
- \type Staff = staffB { [c''8 c''8] c''4 } >
-)
-
-
-bf(Important) the construct with code([/3) and
-code([/1) is a hack that sets a mode in the parser. This means that
-verb(id = \melodic { c8 c8 c8 }
-notATriplet =\melodic { [2/3 \id ]1/1 })
-does not produce a triplet. It will hopefully
-soon be replaced by a construction that mixes more elegantly with the
-grammar for Music.
-
-
-sect(Shortcuts for octaves)
-label(sec:relativeoctaves)
-
-Plain Mudela contains a lot of quotes to get the octaves right. This
-need for quotes can be reduced: most of the pitch intervals in
-conventional music are small. Therefore, it makes sense to leave out
-the quotes when the interval is small. We have built a mode that does
-exactly this. It is called the relative mode for octaves. You can
-switch it on by entering code(\relative). Then LilyPond will
-interpret every note as if they mean the note with the same name
-closest to the previous. You have to specify the first pitch because
-the first note of a list obviously has no predecessor. So, you can
-enter a scale without using octavation quotes, e.g.,
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \relative c' { c d e f g a b c }
-)
-
-For chords, the relative mode works slightly differently. In a
-sequence of chords, the first note of a chord gives the starting point
-for the next chord. We can demonstrate this with our twinkle twinkle example
-verb(
- \relative c' {
- c4 c <c g'> <c e g>
- <c e a> <b d a'> <b2 d g>
- <a4 d f> <bes d f> <bes c e> <g c e>
- <e a d> <a, g' cis'> <d2 f d'>
- }
-)
-
-LilyPond converts any music with code(\relative) prepended to absolute
-music immediately when it is read. Internally it is stored it in
-absolute pitches. Since the tutorial mainly deals with how to specify
-musical information, and not how to enter it conveniently, the
-tutorial doesn't use it.
-
-
-sect(Large pieces)
-label(tutorial:large-pieces)
-
-In our quest for a clean and powerfull music language, we took the effort
-of entering some larger pieces of music as well. From this we learned
-certain things that lead to direct improvements of Mudela, such as the
-relative mode. We also gained some practial experience, that resulted in a
-compilation of tips that may be of use to you.
-
-Entering a large piece of music will often imply the need to produce a
-conductor's score, as well as individual parts for all instruments. This
-can most easily be achieved making use of identifiers and including mudela
-files.
-
-subsect(Identifiers)
-
-Briefly introduced before, identifiers are your biggest help in structurising
-a large piece of music. As an example, we'll consider a string quartet.
-In short, it will look like this: verb(
- global = \melodic{ }
- violinoOne = \melodic \relative c { .. }
- violinoTwo = \melodic \relative c { .. }
- viola = \melodic \relative c { .. }
- violoncello = \melodic \relative c { .. }
-)
-
-The code(\global) part contains everything that is global, i.e., the
-same, for each instrument. This may include time signature, key, repeat
-signs, different bar types, time signature- and key changes, rehearsal
-marks, etc.
-
-For each instrument, you'll have something vaguely resembling verb(
- violinoOneStaff = \type Staff = violinoOne <
- \property Staff.midi_instrument = "violin"
- \property Staff.instrument = "Violino I"
- \property Staff.instr = "Vl. I"
- \global
- \violinoOne
- >
-)
-
-
-[Versions, relative mode,
- barchecks, splitting of files]
-
-subsect(Including Mudela files)
-ref(subsect:include)
-
-You can include other Mudela files with the command code(\include):
-verb(
-\include "paper13.ly"
-\score {
- ...
- \paper { \paper_thirteen }
-})
-
-The file is looked for in the standard search path.
-
-
-subsect(Grouping of staffs)
-
-subsect(Versioning)
-
-sect(Titling)
-label(tutorial:titling)
-
-A piece of sheet music isn't complete without proper opening and
-closing titles. LilyPond does not have any real support for setting
-text: that is a job best left to TeX(). But you can pass messages to
-TeX() from the input file. You can write TeX() macros to handle
-these messages.
-To do this, you add a code(\header) block
-to your input file. The format is quite simple,
-
-verb(
-\header{
- "key" = "value";
- "key" = "value";
- "key" = "value";
- % etc.
-})
-
-When the results of the music typesetting are output, the contents of
-code(\header) are also up into the TeX() file. Tools like
-code(ly2dvi) can use this information to generate pretty titling for
-your input file. Consult the manual page of code(ly2dvi) for more
-details.
-
-
-The code(\header) block should be at toplevel in mudela, and
-preferably at the top of the file. If you have an input file with
-multiple code(\score) blocks, you should add a header to every score,
-describing the different sub parts of the music piece, eg.
-
-
-verb(\header {
- "composer" = "Ludwig Van Bavaria";
- "title" = "Symphonie Megalomane";
- }
- \score{
- ... % some music
- \header { movement = "Mit roher Kraft wild herausfahrend!"; }
- \paper { }
- }
- \score{
- ... % some more music
- \header { movement = "Saut\'e comme un oeuf."; }
- \paper { }
- }
-)
-
-If you want you can also put the code(\header) block at the top of the
-input file; it will then be put into every output file automatically.
-This will make it clear what the file contains as soon as you open it.
-
-
-
-chapter(Features)
-label(features)
-
-bf(This document is not up to date). All rendered examples of course
-are current, but the rest probably isn't. Adjusting the tutorial was
-considered more important than writing the reference manual. We
-apologize for the inconvenience.
-
-
-This document describes the the GNU LilyPond input format, which is an
-effective language for defining music. We call this language (rather
-arrogantly) The Musical Definition Language or Mudela, for
-short.footnote(If anybody comes up with a better name, we'd gladly
- take this. Gourlay already uses Musical Description Language,
- G-Sharp Score Definition Language. ISO standard 10743 defines a
- Standard Music Description Language. We're not being original here.)
-
-The first aim of Mudela is to define a piece of music, being complete
-from both from a musical typesetting, as from a musical performing
-point of view.
-
-The Musical Definition Language (Mudela), has a logical structure,
-making use of identifiers, that allows for flexible input, and
-definition reuse. See the documentation file file(MANIFESTO), included
-with the LilyPond sources for reasons and design considerations.
-
-The below is included for explanatory purposes only (i.e., for a
-complete and up-to-date definition, see file(lily/parser.yy) and
-file(lily/lexer.ll)).
-
-As a related note, you should take a look at the examples and the init
-files, as this document does not cover every aspect of Mudela yet, and
-may be out of date.footnote(Ok, I am being pessimistic here. This
-just is a disclaimer. Docs usually are written after the program
-itself.) This document intends to give an idea of how it works. It is
-not a guide on how to use it.
-
-sect(Files)
-
-The de-facto extension of Mudela is file(.ly). Files may be included by
-entering code(\include) at the start of a line:
-
-verb(
-\include "a_file.ly"
-)
-
-
-sect(Comments)
-
-Line comments are introduced by a
-code(%).
-Block comments are delimited
-by
-code(%{)
-and
-code(%}).
-They do not nest.
-
-
-sect(Versions)
-
-Occasionally, small changes in syntax across different versions of
-Mudela might give syntax errors. To warn you about possible
-incompatibilities, you can specify the Mudela version for which the
-inputfile was written,
-verb(
-\version "0.0.50";
-)
-
-A Python-script which tries to convert to newer versions
-(file(convert-mudela)) is included in the LilyPond distribution.
-
-sect(Keywords)
-
-Keywords are preceded by a backslash: code(\). They contain
-alphabetic characters only.
-
-
-sect(Nesting characters)
-
-Mudela uses the brace, `code({)' and `code(})' for most hierarchical
-structures. For chords the code(<) and the code(>) are used as
-nesting braces.
-
-sect(Constants)
-
-verb(
-"I am a string"
--1.2e3 % a real
-12 % an int
-)
-
-
-sect(Identifiers)
-
-When assigning identifiers you use
-
-verb(
-string = ...
-)
-
-If you reuse identifiers, then the previous contents will be thrown
-away after the right hand is evaluated, e.g.
-verb(
-bla = \melodic { \bla }
-)
-is legal
-
-When using identifiers they have to be escaped:
-
-verb(
-oboe = \melodic { ... }
-\score{ \melodic { \oboe }}
-)
-
-The left-hand part of the assignment is really a string, so
-verb(
-"Foo bar 4 2 " = \melodic { .. }
-)
-
-is also a valid assignment (but you would have trouble referencing to it)
-
-
-sect(Hierarchical structures)
-
-The general structure consists of declarations:
-verb(
-IDENTIFIER = \TYPE{
- <type specific data>
-}
-)
-and instantiations:
-
-verb(
-\TYPE{ <type specific data> }
-)
-
-(Currently, code(\score) is the only type that can be instantiated
-at top level.)
-
-Most instantiations that use an IDENTIFIER are specified as follows:
-
-verb(
-\TYPE{ \IDENTIFIER [...] }
-)
-
-Some exceptions on this rule have been made to prevent inputting
-Mudela becoming tedious
-
-sect(Modes:)
-
-To simplify different aspects of music definition (entering the notes
-and manipulating them) Mudela has a number of different input "modes":
-
-description(
-
-
-dit(Normal mode)
-
-At the start of parsing, Mudela assumes normal mode.
-In Normal mode, a word is looked up in the following order:
-description(
-dit(code(word)) string
-dit(code("string")) string
-dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier
-)
-In normal mode, a word is assumed to start with an alphabetic
-character, followed by alpha-numeric characters.
-
-dit(Note mode) Note mode is introduced by the keyword
- code(\melodic). In Note mode, a word is looked up in the following
- order:
-description(
-dit(code(word)) notename, string
-dit(code("string")) string
-dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier
-)
-
-In Note mode a word is considered to have alphabetic characters only,
-so the underscore (_) is invalid. If you accidently mistype a
-notename, the parser will assume that you are entering a string (and
-it will most likely complain that you should be in code(\lyric) mode to
-do lyrics)
-
-
-dit(Lyric mode) Lyrics mode is introduced by the keyword
- code(\lyric). Because of the various control characters that can
- appear in lyrics, e.g., foreign language accents, the inputting a
- string containing these has been made very easy.
-
-In Lyrics mode, a word is looked up in the following order:
-description(
-dit(code(word)) string (thus a lyric)
-dit(code("string")) string
-dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier
-)
-
-In Lyric mode every sequence of non-digit and non-white characters
-starting with an alphabetic character or the _ is considered a word.
-
-verb(
-a&@&@&TSI|{[ % a word
-1THtrhortho % not a "word"
-Leise DOEXPAND(Fl\)DOEXPAND("u\)ss{}teren meine Sapfe % 4 words
-_ _ _ _ % 4 words: 4 spaces
-)
-)
-
-These modes are of a lexical nature. Normal and Note mode largely
-resemble each other, save the possibility of entering Reals,
-meaning of code(_) and the resolution of words
-
-
-
-
-
-Durations are entered as their reciprocal values
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-a'1 a'2 a'4 a a'8 a a'16 a'32 a'64
-)
-Notice that you only have to specify the duration when it changes: Lily
-assumes a note has the same duration as the previous one.
-
-Now we can already write a little tune
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-c' d' e' c' | c' d' e' c' | e' f' g'2
-)
-As you'll probably have guessed,
-the vertical bar code(|) may be used to mark
-measures.
-
-In the scale shown above
-we left-out the last c note of the next octave.
-Postfixing the pitch with a quote code(')
-produces a note by one octave higher
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-c c' c''
-)
-
-Postfixing the pitch with a comma, code(,)
-produces a note by one octave lower
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-a a, a,,
-)
-
-sect(Slurs and Ties)
-
-A tie connects two adjacent note heads
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-e' ~ e'
-)
-
-Whereas a slur rather connects `chords',
-and tries to avoid crossing stems
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-e'( )e'
-)
-
-And of course, such a (legato) slur can span several notes
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-c'( d' e' )f'
-)
-
-sect(Beams and Tuplets)
-
-A beam is
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-[a'8 a'] [a'16 a' a' a']
-)
-
-Here's a beamed triplet
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-[/3 a'8 a' a']/1
-)
-
-a triplet without a beam
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-\[/3 a'4 a'8\]
-)
-
-and a combination
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-[/3 a'8 a'16 a'] a'8 \]
-)
-
-Abbreviations
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-c'1:16 [:16 e'1 g']
-)
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-c'4:32 [:16 c'8 d'8]
-)
-
-sect(Notenames)
-
-Lily has predefined sets of notenames
-for various nop(languages)footnote(These
-are Dutch, English, German, Italian and Swedish.
-Simply include the language specific init file file(language.ly).).
-The default set are the ones we like best are the Dutch notenames.
-
-A sharp is formed by adding code(is)
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-cis' dis' eis' fis' gis' ais' bis'
-)
-
-and a flat is formed by adding code(es)
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-ces' des' es' fes' ges' as' bes'
-)
-
-With the obvious names for double sharps
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-cisis' disis' eisis' fisis' gisis' aisis' bisis'
-)
-
-and double flats
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-ceses' deses' eses' feses' geses' ases' beses'
-)
-
-
-There are two special `notenames', the rest
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-r16 [a' a' a']
-)
-
-and the space
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-a'2 s-"diminuendo" | a'
-)
-
-
-sect(Commands)
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-\clef "bass"; c
-)
-
-and a clef-change
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-\clef "treble"; f' e' \clef "alto"; d' c'
-)
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-\time 3/4; c' g' g' |
-)
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-\key d;
-g a b cis' d' e' fis' g'
-)
-Note how Mudela allows you to
-convey a musical message and doesn't force you to produce a list of typesetting commands.
-If the music has a code(cis), you type a code(cis).
-Depending on the key and context of the note
-Lily will determine what accidentals to typeset.
-
-A reminder accidental can be forced by
-using an exclamation mark code(!)
-on a pitch a reminder accidental
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-cis' d' e' cis' | c'! d' e' c' |
-)
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-\time 2/4;
-\bar "|:"; c' c' \bar ":|:"; c' c' \bar ":|"; c' c' \bar "|.";
-)
-
-sect(Chords and Voices)
-
-Here's a simple chord
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-<c e g>
-)
-
-here are a few
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
-<
- { c'()d'()c' }
- { e'()f'()e' }
- { g'()a'()g' }
->
-)
-
-and similarly voices
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-<
- { \voiceone c'4 g' c' g' }
- { \voicetwo c2 g2 }
->
-)
-
-
-sect(A complete example)
-COMMENT(%label(se:complete))
-
-A Mudela file needs some red tape
-
-mudela(verbatim)(
-\score{
- \melodic {
- c' d' e' c' |
- c' d' e' c' |
- e' f' g'2 |
- }
-}
-)
-
-sect(Lyrics)
-
-Lyrics are entered like notes, with pitches substituted
-by text.
-
-All syllables are entered separately, separated by whitespace
-verb(
-Twin-4 kle4 twin-4 kle4 ...
-)
-
-Two syllables or words that compose a single
-duration entry are bound together using an underscore
-verb(
-He_could4 not4
-)
-
-
-COMMENT(
-URG
- Fr\`e-4 re Ja- que
- Fr\`e- re Ja- que
-)
-
-mudela(verbatim,center)(
-\score{
- <
- \melodic \transpose c'' {
- c d e c | c d e c |
- e f g'2 | e'4 f g'2
- \bar "|.";
- }
- \type Lyrics \lyric{
- DOEXPAND(Fr\)`e-4 re Ja- que
- DOEXPAND(Fr\)`e- re Ja- que
- Dor- mez vous?2
- Dor-4 mez vous?2
- }
- >
-}
-)
-
-sect(Composition: forming bigger structures)
-label(sec:grammar)
-
-The computer savy user may be interested in a more formal
-specification. We can capture what have learned about forming
-sentences in Mudela in a context-free grammar.
-
-latexcommand(\smallskip)
-
-table(2)(lll)(
- row(cell(em(Music))cell(: em(Note)))
- row(cell()cell(code(|) em(Rest)))
- row(cell()cell(code(|) code({) em(MusicList) code(})))
- row(cell()cell(code(|) code(<) em(MusicList) code(>)))
- row(cell()cell(code(|) em(Command)))
- row(cell()cell(code(|) code(\type) em(string) code(=) em(string) em(Music)))
- row(cell()cell(;))
- row(cell(em(MusicList))cell(: em(empty)))
- row(cell()cell(code(|) em(MusicList) em(Music)))
- row(cell()cell(;))
-)
-
-latexcommand(\smallskip)
-
-
-
-
-
-In mathematics you can form expressions by combining expressions,
-which are ultimately some kind of atom or terminal symbol. The same
-goes for Mudela: there are some basic building blocks, and by
-combining those you create complex music.
-
-You can combine music in three ways:
-itemize(
-it()If you enclose a sequence of music-elements in braces ( code({)
- and code(}) ), then you form another kind of music called
-sequential music
- with those pieces.
- The duration of sequential composition is the sum of the durations of its elements
- verb(
- { c c g g a a g2 } % twinkle twinkle
- { { c c g g} { a a g2 } }
- )
-it()You can stack music by enclosing a sequence of music elements
- with code(<) and code(>). This is called simultaneous music.
- The duration of a simultaneous composition is the union of the durations
- of its elements Example:
- verb(
- <a4 {cis8 cis8} e'4> % a-major chord
- )
-it()You can form music by transposing music:
- verb(
- \transpose
- d % from c to the d that's almost one octave down
- { e4 f4 } % the horizontal music
-)
-it()verb(\type)
-it()verb(\property)
-it()verb(\translator)
-it()verb(\relative)
-)
-
-Of course you can also combine these three mechanisms.
-verb(
-{ c <c e> <c e g> <c e g \transpose d' dis > } % 4 increasing chords
-)
-
-
-sect(Durations)
-
-A duration always starts with the duration type (1,2,4 etc), and then
-any optional multipliers/dots. `Gregrorian' durations can be entered
-as follows
-verb(
-c'\breve
-gis'\longa
-)
-
-
-
-sect(Time signatures/groupings)
-
-A time signature specification has this form:
-verb(
-\time 3/4 ;
-)
-
-Rhythmic grouping is a concept closely associated with this. For
-example, in a 5/8 time signature, the counts are grouped 2+3. In Mudela this is
-entered as
-verb(
-\grouping 8*2 8*3 ;
-)
-
-You can start the piece with a partial measure, the command takes a
-duration as an argument
-verb(
-\partial 16*3;
-)
-
-Make the piece start with a upstep
-lasting 1 3/4 quarter notes.
-
-These commands constitute `Music', and have a duration of 0.
-
-
-sect(Properties)
-
-By default the same accidentals are valid for all octaves, but
- this can be changed with the property code(specialaccidentals).
-
-
-The identifier code(\specialkey) sets the property for the Staff. A
-key with two flats in one octave and three
- sharps in the next can be declared with verb(\specialkey
-\accidentals bes es fis' cis' gis';)
-
-sect(Music fragments)
-label(tutorial:music-fragments)
-
-Sometimes you only need to print a small fragment of music, perhaps
-something much like one of the examples in this document. Back in
-section ref(sec:running-lilypond) we told you that the music you
-enter should be encapsulated in something like:
-verb(
-\score<
- \melodic\relative c{
- d
- }
- \paper{ }
- \midi{ }
->
-)
-where the only interesting information is this particular example is verb(
- d
-)
-The rest of the above example was already nicknamed `red tape'.
-You may easily get bored if you have to provide this same red tape
-for every fragmenty you nop(try)footnote(Of course, in most cases your
-favourite text editor (TM)
-will help you out.).
-
-Luckily there's a trick around this, and it's called file(.fly) files.
-If you use the extension file(.fly) for Mudela file file(foo),
-LilyPond will embed your file(foo.fly) nop(in)footnote(Or something very
-similar. If you want to know exactly, see file(init/init.fly)):
-verb(
-\score<
- \melodic\relative c{
- <<foo.ly>>
- }
- \paper{ }
- \midi{ }
-)
-
-Here's how it works. If you run LilyPond on your file file(bar.ly), you
-may notice that she starts-off by reading quite a number of files before
-she actually reaches your file(bar.ly). There's no magic going on, Lily
-by default reads an initialisation file (file(init/init.ly)). In the
-initialisation process a lot of things are defined that you'll need for
-normal operation, such as notenames and various other mudela shortcuts,
-engraver and perforer definitions, font sizes, musical dimensions and
-paper sizes. When you use the extension file(.fly), Lily just starts
-reading another initialisation file (file(init/init.fly)), that includes the
-red tape for you too.
-
-
-appendix()
-
-chapter(Glossary)
-label(glossary)
-
-This glossary is far from complete. Additions are welcome.
-
-whenlatex(latexcommand(
- {\parindent -1pc
- \parskip 0pc\parsep 0pc
- % COMMENT( from the texbook)
- \def\length#1{\count0=0 \getlength#1\end}
- \def\getlength#1{\ifx#1\end \let\next=\relax
- \else\advance\count0 by1 \let\next=\getlength\fi \next}
- \def\inlanguage#1#2{{\length{#2}%
- \ifnum\count0=0
- \else
- \emph{#1}: #2.
- \fi}}
- \small
-
- % COMMENT(\def\tableentry#1#2#3#4#5#6#7{\par\textbf{#1}: #7)
- \def\tableentry#1#2#3#4#5#6#7{\par{\bf #1}: #7
- \inlanguage{Fran\c cais}{#2}
- \inlanguage{British}{#4} \inlanguage{Deutsch}{#3}
- \inlanguage{Nederlands}{#5}\inlanguage{Italiano}{#6}}
- \input{vocabulary}
- }
-))
-
-whenhtml(
- includeverbatim(DOEXPAND(outdir)/vocabulary.html)
-)
-
-whenlatex(latexcommand(
- \bibliographystyle{plain}
- \bibliography{engraving}
-))
-
-
-COMMENT(The bib stuff is somewhere else on the WWW site)
-COMMENT(
-setchapterstring{}
-
-whenhtml{
- nchapter{Bibliography}
- includeverbatim{out-www/engraving.html}
-})
-
projects / lilypond.git / commitdiff