--- /dev/null
+COMMENT(-*-text-*-)
+
+DEFINEMACRO(var)(1)(whenlatex(latexcommand({\normalfont\scshape )ARG1+latexcommand(}))\
+ whenhtml(sc(ARG1)))
+
+
+
+COMMENT( This document contains Mudela fragments. You need at least
+Yodl-1.30.18 to convert this to tex or html.
+
+TODO
+
+in stead <-> instead
+)
+
+htmlbodyopt(bgcolor)(white)
+htmlcommand(<font color=black>)
+
+latexpackage()(a4wide)
+latexlayoutcmds(
+%\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
+\input mudela-book
+)
+
+whenlatex(notableofcontents())
+whentexinfo(notableofcontents())
+
+report(Mudela, reference manual)
+ (Han-Wen Nienhuys and Jan Nieuwenhuizen)
+ (nop()PIPETHROUGH(date "+%B %d, %Y")()()nop())
+
+COMMENT(
+
+* The [ ] look weird
+
+* paragraphs have too much space.
+
+)
+
+
+latexcommand(\def\interexample{})
+latexcommand(\def\preexample{\par})
+latexcommand(\def\postexample{\par\medskip})
+latexcommand(\def\file#1{{code(#1)}})
+COMMENT(
+latexcommand(\def\texttt#1{\tt #1})
+latexcommand(\def\textbf#1{\bf #1})
+)
+
+
+bf(This document is not up to date). All rendered examples of course
+are current, but the rest probably isn't. Adjusting the tutorial was
+considered more important than writing the reference manual. We
+apologize for the inconvenience.
+
+
+This document describes the the GNU LilyPond input format, which is an
+effective language for defining music. We call this language (rather
+arrogantly) The Musical Definition Language or Mudela, for
+short.footnote(If anybody comes up with a better name, we'd gladly
+ take this. Gourlay already uses Musical Description Language,
+ G-Sharp Score Definition Language. ISO standard 10743 defines a
+ Standard Music Description Language. We're not being original here.)
+
+The first aim of Mudela is to define a piece of music, being complete
+from both from a musical typesetting, as from a musical performing
+point of view.
+
+The Musical Definition Language (Mudela), has a logical structure,
+making use of identifiers, that allows for flexible input, and
+definition reuse. See the documentation file file(MANIFESTO), included
+with the LilyPond sources for reasons and design considerations.
+
+The below is included for explanatory purposes only (i.e., for a
+complete and up-to-date definition, see file(lily/parser.yy) and
+file(lily/lexer.ll)).
+
+As a related note, you should take a look at the examples and the init
+files, as this document does not cover every aspect of Mudela yet, and
+may be out of date.footnote(Ok, I am being pessimistic here. This
+just is a disclaimer. Docs usually are written after the program
+itself.) This document intends to give an idea of how it works. It is
+not a guide on how to use it.
+
+sect(Files)
+
+The de-facto extension of Mudela is file(.ly). Files may be included by
+entering code(\include) at the start of a line:
+
+verb(
+\include "a_file.ly"
+)
+
+
+sect(Comments)
+
+Line comments are introduced by a
+code(%).
+Block comments are delimited
+by
+code(%{)
+and
+code(%}).
+They do not nest.
+
+
+sect(Versions)
+
+Occasionally, small changes in syntax across different versions of
+Mudela might give syntax errors. To warn you about possible
+incompatibilities, you can specify the Mudela version for which the
+inputfile was written,
+verb(
+\version "0.0.50";
+)
+
+A Python-script which tries to convert to newer versions
+(file(convert-mudela)) is included in the LilyPond distribution.
+
+sect(Keywords)
+
+Keywords are preceded by a backslash: code(\). They contain
+alphabetic characters only.
+
+
+sect(Nesting characters)
+
+Mudela uses the brace, `code({)' and `code(})' for most hierarchical
+structures. For chords the code(<) and the code(>) are used as
+nesting braces.
+
+sect(Constants)
+
+verb(
+"I am a string"
+-1.2e3 % a real
+12 % an int
+)
+
+
+sect(Identifiers)
+
+When assigning identifiers you use
+
+verb(
+string = ...
+)
+
+If you reuse identifiers, then the previous contents will be thrown
+away after the right hand is evaluated, e.g.
+verb(
+bla = \melodic { \bla }
+)
+is legal
+
+When using identifiers they have to be escaped:
+
+verb(
+oboe = \melodic { ... }
+\score{ \melodic { \oboe }}
+)
+
+The left-hand part of the assignment is really a string, so
+verb(
+"Foo bar 4 2 " = \melodic { .. }
+)
+
+is also a valid assignment (but you would have trouble referencing to it)
+
+
+sect(Hierarchical structures)
+
+The general structure consists of declarations:
+verb(
+IDENTIFIER = \TYPE{
+ <type specific data>
+}
+)
+and instantiations:
+
+verb(
+\TYPE{ <type specific data> }
+)
+
+(Currently, code(\score) is the only type that can be instantiated
+at top level.)
+
+Most instantiations that use an IDENTIFIER are specified as follows:
+
+verb(
+\TYPE{ \IDENTIFIER [...] }
+)
+
+Some exceptions on this rule have been made to prevent inputting
+Mudela becoming tedious
+
+sect(Modes:)
+
+To simplify different aspects of music definition (entering the notes
+and manipulating them) Mudela has a number of different input "modes":
+
+description(
+
+
+dit(Normal mode)
+
+At the start of parsing, Mudela assumes normal mode.
+In Normal mode, a word is looked up in the following order:
+description(
+dit(code(word)) string
+dit(code("string")) string
+dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier
+)
+In normal mode, a word is assumed to start with an alphabetic
+character, followed by alpha-numeric characters.
+
+dit(Note mode) Note mode is introduced by the keyword
+ code(\melodic). In Note mode, a word is looked up in the following
+ order:
+description(
+dit(code(word)) notename, string
+dit(code("string")) string
+dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier
+)
+
+In Note mode a word is considered to have alphabetic characters only,
+so the underscore (_) is invalid. If you accidently mistype a
+notename, the parser will assume that you are entering a string (and
+it will most likely complain that you should be in code(\lyric) mode to
+do lyrics)
+
+
+dit(Lyric mode) Lyrics mode is introduced by the keyword
+ code(\lyric). Because of the various control characters that can
+ appear in lyrics, e.g., foreign language accents, the inputting a
+ string containing these has been made very easy.
+
+In Lyrics mode, a word is looked up in the following order:
+description(
+dit(code(word)) string (thus a lyric)
+dit(code("string")) string
+dit(code(\word)) keyword, identifier
+)
+
+In Lyric mode every sequence of non-digit and non-white characters
+starting with an alphabetic character or the _ is considered a word.
+
+verb(
+a&@&@&TSI|{[ % a word
+1THtrhortho % not a "word"
+Leise DOEXPAND(Fl\)DOEXPAND("u\)ss{}teren meine Sapfe % 4 words
+_ _ _ _ % 4 words: 4 spaces
+)
+)
+
+These modes are of a lexical nature. Normal and Note mode largely
+resemble each other, save the possibility of entering Reals,
+meaning of code(_) and the resolution of words
+
+
+
+
+
+Durations are entered as their reciprocal values
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+a'1 a'2 a'4 a a'8 a a'16 a'32 a'64
+)
+Notice that you only have to specify the duration when it changes: Lily
+assumes a note has the same duration as the previous one.
+
+Now we can already write a little tune
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+c' d' e' c' | c' d' e' c' | e' f' g'2
+)
+As you'll probably have guessed,
+the vertical bar code(|) may be used to mark
+measures.
+
+In the scale shown above
+we left-out the last c note of the next octave.
+Postfixing the pitch with a quote code(')
+produces a note by one octave higher
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+c c' c''
+)
+
+Postfixing the pitch with a comma, code(,)
+produces a note by one octave lower
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+a a, a,,
+)
+
+sect(Slurs and Ties)
+
+A tie connects two adjacent note heads
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+e' ~ e'
+)
+
+Whereas a slur rather connects `chords',
+and tries to avoid crossing stems
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+e'( )e'
+)
+
+And of course, such a (legato) slur can span several notes
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+c'( d' e' )f'
+)
+
+sect(Beams and Tuplets)
+
+A beam is
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+[a'8 a'] [a'16 a' a' a']
+)
+
+Here's a beamed triplet
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+[/3 a'8 a' a']/1
+)
+
+a triplet without a beam
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+\[/3 a'4 a'8\]
+)
+
+and a combination
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+[/3 a'8 a'16 a'] a'8 \]
+)
+
+Abbreviations
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+c'1:16 [:16 e'1 g']
+)
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+c'4:32 [:16 c'8 d'8]
+)
+
+sect(Notenames)
+
+Lily has predefined sets of notenames
+for various nop(languages)footnote(These
+are Dutch, English, German, Italian and Swedish.
+Simply include the language specific init file file(language.ly).).
+The default set are the ones we like best are the Dutch notenames.
+
+A sharp is formed by adding code(is)
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+cis' dis' eis' fis' gis' ais' bis'
+)
+
+and a flat is formed by adding code(es)
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ces' des' es' fes' ges' as' bes'
+)
+
+With the obvious names for double sharps
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+cisis' disis' eisis' fisis' gisis' aisis' bisis'
+)
+
+and double flats
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ceses' deses' eses' feses' geses' ases' beses'
+)
+
+
+There are two special `notenames', the rest
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+r16 [a' a' a']
+)
+
+and the space
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+a'2 s-"diminuendo" | a'
+)
+
+
+sect(Commands)
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+\clef "bass"; c
+)
+
+and a clef-change
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+\clef "treble"; f' e' \clef "alto"; d' c'
+)
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+\time 3/4; c' g' g' |
+)
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+\key d;
+g a b cis' d' e' fis' g'
+)
+Note how Mudela allows you to
+convey a musical message and doesn't force you to produce a list of typesetting commands.
+If the music has a code(cis), you type a code(cis).
+Depending on the key and context of the note
+Lily will determine what accidentals to typeset.
+
+A reminder accidental can be forced by
+using an exclamation mark code(!)
+on a pitch a reminder accidental
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+cis' d' e' cis' | c'! d' e' c' |
+)
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+\time 2/4;
+\bar "|:"; c' c' \bar ":|:"; c' c' \bar ":|"; c' c' \bar "|.";
+)
+
+sect(Chords and Voices)
+
+Here's a simple chord
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+<c e g>
+)
+
+here are a few
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+<
+ { c'()d'()c' }
+ { e'()f'()e' }
+ { g'()a'()g' }
+>
+)
+
+and similarly voices
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+<
+ { \voiceone c'4 g' c' g' }
+ { \voicetwo c2 g2 }
+>
+)
+
+
+sect(A complete example)
+COMMENT(%label(se:complete))
+
+A Mudela file needs some red tape
+
+mudela(verbatim)(
+\score{
+ \melodic {
+ c' d' e' c' |
+ c' d' e' c' |
+ e' f' g'2 |
+ }
+}
+)
+
+sect(Lyrics)
+
+Lyrics are entered like notes, with pitches substituted
+by text.
+
+All syllables are entered separately, separated by whitespace
+verb(
+Twin-4 kle4 twin-4 kle4 ...
+)
+
+Two syllables or words that compose a single
+duration entry are bound together using an underscore
+verb(
+He_could4 not4
+)
+
+
+COMMENT(
+URG
+ Fr\`e-4 re Ja- que
+ Fr\`e- re Ja- que
+)
+
+mudela(verbatim,center)(
+\score{
+ <
+ \melodic \transpose c'' {
+ c d e c | c d e c |
+ e f g'2 | e'4 f g'2
+ \bar "|.";
+ }
+ \type Lyrics \lyric{
+ DOEXPAND(Fr\)`e-4 re Ja- que
+ DOEXPAND(Fr\)`e- re Ja- que
+ Dor- mez vous?2
+ Dor-4 mez vous?2
+ }
+ >
+}
+)
+
+sect(Composition: forming bigger structures)
+label(sec:grammar)
+
+The computer savy user may be interested in a more formal
+specification. We can capture what have learned about forming
+sentences in Mudela in a context-free grammar.
+
+latexcommand(\smallskip)
+
+table(2)(lll)(
+ row(cell(em(Music))cell(: em(Note)))
+ row(cell()cell(code(|) em(Rest)))
+ row(cell()cell(code(|) code({) em(MusicList) code(})))
+ row(cell()cell(code(|) code(<) em(MusicList) code(>)))
+ row(cell()cell(code(|) em(Command)))
+ row(cell()cell(code(|) code(\type) em(string) code(=) em(string) em(Music)))
+ row(cell()cell(;))
+ row(cell(em(MusicList))cell(: em(empty)))
+ row(cell()cell(code(|) em(MusicList) em(Music)))
+ row(cell()cell(;))
+)
+
+latexcommand(\smallskip)
+
+
+
+
+
+In mathematics you can form expressions by combining expressions,
+which are ultimately some kind of atom or terminal symbol. The same
+goes for Mudela: there are some basic building blocks, and by
+combining those you create complex music.
+
+You can combine music in three ways:
+itemize(
+it()If you enclose a sequence of music-elements in braces ( code({)
+ and code(}) ), then you form another kind of music called
+sequential music
+ with those pieces.
+ The duration of sequential composition is the sum of the durations of its elements
+ verb(
+ { c c g g a a g2 } % twinkle twinkle
+ { { c c g g} { a a g2 } }
+ )
+it()You can stack music by enclosing a sequence of music elements
+ with code(<) and code(>). This is called simultaneous music.
+ The duration of a simultaneous composition is the union of the durations
+ of its elements Example:
+ verb(
+ <a4 {cis8 cis8} e'4> % a-major chord
+ )
+it()You can form music by transposing music:
+ verb(
+ \transpose
+ d % from c to the d that's almost one octave down
+ { e4 f4 } % the horizontal music
+)
+it()verb(\type)
+it()verb(\property)
+it()verb(\translator)
+it()verb(\relative)
+)
+
+Of course you can also combine these three mechanisms.
+verb(
+{ c <c e> <c e g> <c e g \transpose d' dis > } % 4 increasing chords
+)
+
+
+sect(Durations)
+
+A duration always starts with the duration type (1,2,4 etc), and then
+any optional multipliers/dots. `Gregrorian' durations can be entered
+as follows
+verb(
+c'\breve
+gis'\longa
+)
+
+
+
+sect(Time signatures/groupings)
+
+A time signature specification has this form:
+verb(
+\time 3/4 ;
+)
+
+Rhythmic grouping is a concept closely associated with this. For
+example, in a 5/8 time signature, the counts are grouped 2+3. In Mudela this is
+entered as
+verb(
+\grouping 8*2 8*3 ;
+)
+
+You can start the piece with a partial measure, the command takes a
+duration as an argument
+verb(
+\partial 16*3;
+)
+
+Make the piece start with a upstep
+lasting 1 3/4 quarter notes.
+
+These commands constitute `Music', and have a duration of 0.
+
+
+sect(Properties)
+
+By default the same accidentals are valid for all octaves, but
+ this can be changed with the property code(specialaccidentals).
+
+
+The identifier code(\specialkey) sets the property for the Staff. A
+key with two flats in one octave and three
+ sharps in the next can be declared with verb(\specialkey
+\accidentals bes es fis' cis' gis';)
+
+sect(Music fragments)
+label(tutorial:music-fragments)
+
+Sometimes you only need to print a small fragment of music, perhaps
+something much like one of the examples in this document. Back in
+section ref(sec:running-lilypond) we told you that the music you
+enter should be encapsulated in something like:
+verb(
+\score<
+ \melodic\relative c{
+ d
+ }
+ \paper{ }
+ \midi{ }
+>
+)
+where the only interesting information is this particular example is verb(
+ d
+)
+The rest of the above example was already nicknamed `red tape'.
+You may easily get bored if you have to provide this same red tape
+for every fragmenty you nop(try)footnote(Of course, in most cases your
+favourite text editor (TM)
+will help you out.).
+
+Luckily there's a trick around this, and it's called file(.fly) files.
+If you use the extension file(.fly) for Mudela file file(foo),
+LilyPond will embed your file(foo.fly) nop(in)footnote(Or something very
+similar. If you want to know exactly, see file(init/init.fly)):
+verb(
+\score<
+ \melodic\relative c{
+ <<foo.ly>>
+ }
+ \paper{ }
+ \midi{ }
+)
+
+Here's how it works. If you run LilyPond on your file file(bar.ly), you
+may notice that she starts-off by reading quite a number of files before
+she actually reaches your file(bar.ly). There's no magic going on, Lily
+by default reads an initialisation file (file(init/init.ly)). In the
+initialisation process a lot of things are defined that you'll need for
+normal operation, such as notenames and various other mudela shortcuts,
+engraver and perforer definitions, font sizes, musical dimensions and
+paper sizes. When you use the extension file(.fly), Lily just starts
+reading another initialisation file (file(init/init.fly)), that includes the
+red tape for you too.
+
--- /dev/null
+COMMENT(-*-text-*-)
+
+DEFINEMACRO(var)(1)(whenlatex(latexcommand({\normalfont\scshape )ARG1+latexcommand(}))\
+ whenhtml(sc(ARG1)))
+
+
+
+COMMENT( This document contains Mudela fragments. You need at least
+Yodl-1.30.18 to convert this to tex or html.
+
+TODO
+
+in stead <-> instead
+)
+
+htmlbodyopt(bgcolor)(white)
+htmlcommand(<font color=black>)
+
+latexpackage()(a4wide)
+latexlayoutcmds(
+%\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
+\input mudela-book
+)
+
+whenlatex(notableofcontents())
+whentexinfo(notableofcontents())
+
+article(Mudela, the Music-Definition Language)
+ (Han-Wen Nienhuys and Jan Nieuwenhuizen)
+ (nop()PIPETHROUGH(date "+%B %d, %Y")()()nop())
+
+COMMENT(
+
+* paragraphs have too much space.
+
+)
+
+
+latexcommand(\def\interexample{})
+latexcommand(\def\preexample{\par})
+latexcommand(\def\postexample{\par\medskip})
+latexcommand(\def\file#1{{code(#1)}})
+
+whenhtml(
+nsubsect(Disclaimer)
+This document is written in url(Yodl)(ftp://pcnov095.win.tue.nl/pub/yodl)
+and should foremost produce nice LaTeX() output.
+In other formats, such as html, some things will look a bit different,
+while other things will be simply left out.
+Therefore, the authoritive version of this document is the PostScript version,
+produced via LaTeX().
+)
+
+sect(Introduction)
+label(tutorial:introduction)
+latexcommand(\parindent2pc)
+
+If you are reading this, you probably are interested in printing
+music. LilyPond is a program that can print music from a
+specification that you, the user, supply. Using LilyPond may be a bit
+quaint in the beginning, because you have to give that specification
+using a em(language). That might not be what you expect if you are
+familiar with graphical interfaces. But there are some big
+advantages: first, once you master the language, entering music can be
+done quite efficiently. Secondly, it is possible to explain exactly
+what the meaning of a language is, i.e., the semantics are much
+clearer. Thirdly, since the program is not interactive, no tradeoffs
+have to be made between processing speed and beauty of the output.
+
+This chapter is a gentle introduction to Mudela, the language that
+instructs LilyPond to typeset music. We will explain Mudela by
+presenting a series of examples of Mudela input. The corresponding
+output will be shown on the right or below, just as it was produced by
+LilyPond.
+
+We will assume that you more or less understand the basics of music notation.
+If you are not familiar with the English terms for music notation, you
+should consult bind(Appendix)ref(glossary): it contains a glossary
+of musical terms along with translations in some other languages.
+
+If you want to try the examples given here, you should have look a
+look at bind(Section)ref(sec:running-lilypond) first.
+
+sect(Music copying, music definition and music entry)
+label(tutorial:copying-vs-def-vs-entry)
+
+If you have copied music before, using LilyPond may seem awkward
+to you in the beginning. The purpose of LilyPond informally is
+explained by the term `music typesetter'.
+
+This may give the impression that the program is like a drawing tool
+and that it lets you control precisely how the music is formatted.
+This is not the case: not only does the program print musical symbols,
+LilyPond also tries to make esthetic decisions---to be precise, we
+programmed her to do what we find nop(pretty.)footnote(We formed our
+taste by looking at, and reading all about fine music engraving. Of
+course, our taste is also bound by all the accepted rules of common
+music notation.) You do not have complete control over what is
+happening. Usually that is not a big loss, since good engraving is a
+very complex trade. In other words, you don't have control, so you do
+not have to worry about what is happening precisely.
+
+Secondly, we expect you to enter the meaning of the music, not the
+sheet music itself. The input to LilyPond is a music definition,
+which is something different than notation: notation is a graphical
+system. Put more concretely: your input to LilyPond should contain
+information like ``a dotted quarter note, pitch nop(d)sups(2).''
+LilyPond will figure out from the musical information that a black
+note head with a stem but without flag, fourth staff line, with dot
+should be printed.
+
+When you are copying music by hand from a printed score, you don't have
+to know what the score means; you just copy the symbols. With LilyPond
+such a thing is not possible. You have to enter the meaning of the
+symbols, and this might not always be as easy. On the other hand, once
+entered, any piece of music can be played and transposed automatically.
+
+Finally, in some spots we will cheat a bit when it comes to musical
+definition. Mudela has some entry modes that help to make typing
+Mudela pleasant. For example, the phrase ``a dotted quarter note,
+pitch nop(d)sups(2)'' translates to the following longhand:
+verb(
+\musicalpitch { 1 2 0 } \duration { 2 1 })
+
+This data is what we consider the musical em(definition). Mudela
+has a special entry mode where you can conveniently abbreviate this to
+`code(d''4.)'. There are some features that also make the quotes and
+numbers in `code(d''4.)' superfluous in some cases.
+
+For those who are curious, the numbers in `code(\musicalpitch { 1 2 0
+})' example mean octave, notename, and accidental respectively. The
+numbers in `code(\duration { 2 1 })' are the (negative) logarithm of the
+duration (2 is a quarter note, 3 is an eighth note, etc.) and the number
+of augmention dots respectively.
+
+sect(When you know the notes to nop(print)ellipsis())
+
+The basic building block of music is the note. You can have LilyPond
+print a note by specifying its pitch and duration. The pitch of the
+central C is written as code(c'). This is in line with musicological
+notation; there this pitch is transcribed as nop(c)sups(1) or c'. A
+quarter-note duration is written as code(4). So, to print a quarter
+note whose pitch is central C, you enter the following:
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)( c'4 )
+
+
+subsect(Duration)
+
+The duration of a note is specified as a number: a whole note is
+denoted by 1, a half note by 2, a quarter by 4, and so on. If you
+want to augment a duration with a dot, simply affix a period to the
+number. Here are some random notes to show how it works.
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64 c'2. c'8. c'16
+)
+
+subsect(Basic pitches)
+
+The pitch code(c') actually consists of two parts: one part for the
+note name, and one for the octave. The letter specifies which note
+name to use: note names simply are the letters code(a) to code(g).
+The number of apostrophes specifies the octave to use: the central C
+is denoted by code(c').footnote(By convention, the A above central C
+at concert pitch is the tone that is used to tune instruments. Its
+frequency is about 440 Hz.) The C which is an eighth higher (the C in
+the ``two-line octave'') is denoted by code(c''): every octave adds a
+quote. A note name without quotes designates the pitch below code(c')
+(the C in the ``small octave''). If you want to go down even further,
+commas should be added, e.g., the C in the ``contra octave'' is
+expressed as code(c,,).footnote(The comma is meant to represent a
+sunken apostrophe.)
+
+
+This example demonstrates octaves:
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ c,,4 c,4 c4 c'4 c''4 c'''4
+)
+
+And this example demonstrates notenames:
+mudela(center,fragment,verbatim)(
+ c'4 d'4 e'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 b'4 c''4
+)
+
+A rest can be entered as a note with the special name code(r), e.g.,
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(r4)
+
+This already gives us enough material to make simple songs. In
+bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1) a portion of the traditional song
+``Twinkle Twinkle Little Star'' is shown.
+
+latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h])
+ center(
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4
+ a''4 a''4 g''2
+)
+ latexcommand(\caption{Twinkle twinkle little star (version 1)})
+ label(fig:twinkle1)
+ )
+latexcommand(\end{figure})
+
+
+subsect(Alterations)
+
+We have so far ignored chromatically altered pitches. The names `a'
+to `g' for entering pitches are convenient: they are short,
+pronounceable and they resemble the words for pitches in normal
+musical vocabulary.
+
+Enter flats and sharps. In English there is no standard terse word
+for C sharp or C flat. For this reason, we implemented a different,
+non-English convention for entering altered pitches: a note is made
+sharp by adding the suffix `--is' to its name, and flat by adding the
+suffix `--es'. For a double sharp another `--is' suffix is added, for
+flats another `--es' suffix. The names for the alterations of C are
+given in bind(Table)ref(notename-tab).
+
+latexcommand(\begin{table}[h])
+ center(
+ table(2)(ll)(
+ row(cell(english)cell(LilyPond))
+ rowline()
+ row(cell(c double flat)cell(ceses))
+ row(cell(c flat)cell(ces))
+ row(cell(c natural)cell(c))
+ row(cell(c sharp)cell(cis))
+ row(cell(c double sharp)cell(cisis))
+ )
+ )
+ latexcommand(\caption{Default note names})
+ label(notename-tab)
+latexcommand(\end{table})
+
+Variations on this convention are used in a number of germanic
+languages, notably Dutch, German, Swedish, and Norwegian. To be
+precise, LilyPond actually defaults to Dutch notenames, with
+code(aes), code(aeses), code(ees) and code(eeses) added for
+consistency.
+
+Throughout this document we will continue to use the Dutch names. To make
+(Dutch) pronunciation easier, the a-flat and e-flat are contracted to
+code(as) and code(es). Similarly, the a double flat and e double flat are
+contracted to code(ases) and code(eses).
+
+If you are not comfortable with these names, you can make your own.
+Note names for different languages are included with the example
+initialisation files, amongst others English (C sharp is abbreviated
+to code(cs)), Italian, Swedish and Norwegian. If you want to use
+these names, you should look at bind(Section)ref(subsect:include) for
+information on how to use include files.
+
+sect(Running LilyPond)
+label(sec:running-lilypond)
+
+In the previous section some basic elements of Mudela were presented.
+We didn't want to bore you too much with repetitive details, so we
+left out some red tape that's needed for a of Mudela in a form that is accepted
+by LilyPond. To
+be precise, we wrote code(X Y Z), when we really meant
+verb(\score {
+ \melodic { X Y Z }
+ \paper {}
+})
+We will continue to leave out the red tape this, until the time is fit to explain what the
+above it means.
+
+
+Because LilyPond uses a language, it is a so called em(batch)
+program.
+This means, that you use a
+text editor (such as code(emacs) or code(vi)) to create an input
+file. When you are done editing your input file, you save it, and you
+run LilyPond on the file. If Lily finds any errors in your input file
+then nop(she)footnote(We're sure that if computer programs could have
+ gender, LilyPond would be a female computer program. So we will
+ refer to the program as a she. This gender-bending is not to tease
+ you, dear reader. We do it in real life as well. In the past two
+ years LilyPond has become sort of a baby daughter to us, keeping us
+ awake at night, but also providing us with lots of joy. We hope you do
+ not mind our little aberration from the traditions of computer-manual
+ writing.) COMMENT(
+ The name LilyPond is actually sort of a girl's name. Can you guess which
+ one ?)
+will complain. If everything went well, then she'll generate a file, that
+you can process further to view or print.
+
+Using LilyPond to print or view some music is a four-step procedure.
+To get you started we'll run down the full procedure for you once.
+
+enumerate(
+it()
+Fire up your favourite editor (if you don't
+know any editors, try code(joe silly.ly)),
+and key in the example from bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1), with red tape:
+verb(
+\score {
+ \melodic {
+ c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4
+ a''4 a''4 g''2
+ }
+ \paper {}
+}
+)
+
+Save your file as file(twinkle.ly).footnote(The default extension for Mudela
+files is file(.ly).)
+
+it()
+Run LilyPond on your newly created file: enter code(lilypond twinkle).
+LilyPond will then print all kinds of mumbo jumbo that can safely be
+ignored. You might see something like this:
+verb(
+GNU LilyPond 0.1.55/FlowerLib 1.1.39
+Parsing ... [/home/hanwen/musix/spacer/init/lily-init.ly[/home/hanwen/
+
+ ... stuff left out here ...
+
+ ] Documentation/twinkle.ly]
+Interpreting music ...[1] (time: 0.04 seconds)
+Preprocessing elements...
+Calculating column positions ... [2]
+Approximated: 1 lines, (with an average of 4.0 columns)
+Time: 0.01 seconds
+warning: Can not solve this casting problem exactly; revert to Word_wrap
+[2]Time: 0.00 seconds
+
+Postprocessing elements...
+TeX output to twinkle.tex ...
+)
+
+All has gone well; there were some warnings but no errors. The run
+resulted in output, a TeX file called file(twinkle.tex).
+
+file(TeX) is usually spelled TeX(). It is a batch program for
+typesetting text. It was developed by the great programmer and
+scientist Donald Knuth to typeset his famous bookseries em(The Art of
+Computer Programming). As you can see, TeX() can be adapted to do a
+lot more. whenlatex(In fact, the document that you are reading now was also
+produced with TeX().) COMMENT(ugh.)
+
+
+it()
+ To do something useful with the output you have to run TeX() on it
+ first. Run the command code(tex twinkle). The output should resemble this:
+verb(
+This is TeX, Version 3.14159 (C version 6.1)
+(twinkle.tex
+Babel <v3.6h> and hyphenation patterns for american, dutch, loaded.
+(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/lilyponddefs.tex
+(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/dyndefs.tex)
+(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/fetdefs.tex
+(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/feta20.tex)
+(/home/hanwen/lib/texmf/tex/lilypond/lily-ps-defs.tex))) [1] )
+Output written on twinkle.dvi (1 page, 3084 bytes).
+Transcript written on twinkle.log.
+)
+ The human translation is ``everything went OK, the result is one
+ page long, and I put it in file(twinkle.dvi).''
+
+it()The file(twinkle.dvi) file is a description of how a piece of
+text looks when it is printed. You can view it, or print it. If you
+are using a Unix system equipped with X-Windows, then you can issue
+the command file(xdvi twinkle) to view the result. If this is not the
+case, consult your local TeX() guru on printing and viewing DVI files.
+What is in your window should approximately look like this:
+mudela()(
+\score {
+ \melodic {
+ c''4 c''4 g''4 g''4
+ a''4 a''4 g''2
+ }
+ \paper { linewidth = 13.\cm; }
+}
+)
+
+it()
+If you want to print file(twinkle.dvi), you should invoke the command
+code(dvips twinkle). Running this command should generate a
+PostScript file called file(twinkle.ps). This file can be printed on
+any PostScript compatible printer. You should not use any other
+tools: the output from LilyPond contains fragments of PostScript which
+will not print correctly if you don't use PostScript. If your printer
+doesn't understand PostScript, you should check out GhostScript, a
+PostScript emulator.
+)
+
+
+
+The four-pass procedure sketched above is a bit clumsy. Moreover, the
+result is pretty crude: the page does not include prettily printed
+titles and if you are unlucky, the margins don't come out well. Jan
+Arne Fagertun wrote a tool to take the above steps out of your hands,
+make neat margins and print titling. The tool is called file(ly2dvi),
+and it should be on your system if you use Lily on a Unix platform.
+If you use file(ly2dvi), then you can do verb(ly2dvi twinkle.ly ) in
+stead of steps 2 and 3. You will feel the real advantage of using
+file(ly2dvi) when you add titling to the music. This is something
+that we will discuss in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:titling).
+
+
+COMMENT(This document does not cover all of Mudela. Due to technical details,
+the precise working of Mudela is coupled to the innards of LilyPond.
+If you really want to know all the details, your best bet would be to
+get the sources to LilyPond and read the parser and scanner source.
+They are in file(lilypond-x.y.z/lily/parser.yy) and
+file(lilypond-x.y.z/lily/lexer.ll).)
+
+
+
+sect(Chords)
+
+Up till now we have only considered music that was rather simple. All
+the music had notes going in one direction, from left to right, one
+note following the other. You might be wondering if this is all Lily
+can do, or whether it is possible to stack notes as well (creating
+em(chords)). Rest assured: we designed LilyPond while keeping in mind
+that she must be able to handle any notation construct that can be
+expressed conveniently. Of course we did not leave out chords.
+
+In Mudela you can form a chord of several notes by enclosing them in
+pointed parentheses, bind(i.e.)bind(langle())bind(and)rangle(). ASCII
+doesn't really have these delimiters, so Mudela uses the larger-than
+(code(>)) and smaller-than (code(<)) signs instead. For example, a
+D-major nop(chord)footnote(Recall what was said in the previous
+section about flats and sharps: the word code(fis) means an f sharp.)
+can be described by the following fragment:
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ <d'8 fis'8 a'8 d''8>
+)
+
+ Chords can be entered in the music in the same places that notes
+can. As an example we give a snippet of ``Twinkle Twinkle Little
+Star'' in chords. The chords may seem, slightly unconventional, but they
+only serve to show how chords work. We've aligned the chords
+in the input on their starting beat just to help you reading it.
+This layout does not influence the typesetting result in any way.
+
+mudela(verbatim, fragment)(
+ c''4 c''4 <c''4 g''4> <c''4 e''4 g''4>
+ <c''4 e''4 a''4> <b'4 d''4 a''4> <b'2 d''2 g''2>
+ <a'4 d''4 f''4> <bes'4 d''4 f''4> <bes'4 c''4 e''4> <g'4 c''4 e''4>
+ <e'4 a'4 d''4> <a4 g'4 cis''4> <d'2 f'2 d''2>
+)
+
+
+
+sect(Shortcuts for duration)
+
+If you typed the last example into a Mudela file, you will have
+noticed that the input has lots of repetitions. You will probably
+have made some errors with the right durations and number of
+octavation quotes.
+To save keystrokes and prevent errors Mudela
+has some handy shortcuts. The simplest is the shortcut for
+durations. You don't have to type the duration if it
+is the same as the last duration entered. This saves a considerable
+number of keystrokes, and thus reduces the potential for errors. The
+previous example can be reduced to verb(
+ c''4 c'' <c'' g''> <c'' e'' g''>
+ <c'' e'' a''> <b' d'' a''> <b'2 d'' g''>
+ <a'4 d'' f''> <bes' d'' f''> <bes' c'' e''> <g' c'' e''>
+ <e' a' d''> <a g' cis''> <d'2 f' d''>
+)
+
+
+If you entered this, you probably made some little errors with the
+right amount of quotes as well. To remedy this, mudela has another
+feature called `relative octaves', which reduces the amount of quotes
+needed. If you want to enter large pieces of music em(now) we
+recommend you make an excursion to
+bind(Section)ref(sec:relativeoctaves) and learn about relative
+octaves.
+
+
+
+sect(Comments)
+
+If you want to make some private notes about the Mudela code that you
+entered, you can do so by inserting comments into your file. The
+contents of these comments are ignored by LilyPond. Mudela has two comment
+styles: line comments and block comments. The line comment
+is introduced by the percent sign:
+verb(
+ c''4
+ c''4 % shouldn't this be a different pitch?
+)
+
+Block comments are enclosed in code(%{) and code(%}).
+
+verb(
+ c''4
+ %{
+ Ludwig van Bavaria's original manuscript has an fffff dynamic sign.
+ Clearly one can see the onset of paranoid schizophrenia in the
+ composer from these subtle nuances in his writings.
+ %}
+ c''4
+)
+
+
+sect(Adding nuances: articulation and dynamics)
+
+Having just chords and notes does not give you real music. Real music
+has more liveliness to it: music can have articulation, dynamics
+(louder and softer), etc. This liveliness has notation, so LilyPond
+can print it. We'll start out by explaining how to obtain the
+smallest grains of nuance: the articulation of a single note. Articulation
+is entered by writing a dash and the name of the desired articulation
+mark. You have to add a backslash in front of the name to distinguish
+it from the name of a note. mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ c''4-\staccato
+ c''4-\tenuto )
+
+Typing a lot of staccato notes in this syntax will get tedious very
+quickly. Therefore, Mudela has some handy abbreviations for
+articulation marks such as staccato and tenuto. They are shown in the
+following example:
+
+mudela()(
+\score{ \melodic {
+ \property Voice.textstyle = typewriter
+ c''4-._"c''4-." s4
+ c''4--_"c''4--" s4
+ c''4-+_"c''4-+" s4
+ c''4-|_"c''4-|" s4
+ c''4->_"c''4->" s4
+ c''4-^_"c''4-\\^{ }" s4 }
+ \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm; }})
+
+
+
+Text and digits for fingering can be entered in the same manner: add a
+dash and the text or digit to be printed:
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ c''4-1 g''4-5 c''-"Sul tasto" )
+Currently, the meaning of the
+syntax `note-dash-digit/articulation/text' is just ``add a superscript to this
+note.'' This is not in line with our goal to em(define) music with
+Mudela. We hope that this will be fixed in a future version of the
+language. In the meantime you can abuse this: the super- and
+subscripts can be forced into up or down position respectively by entering an
+a caret (code(^)) or an underscore, code(_) instead of the dash:
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ c'4-^ c'4^^ c'''4-^ c'''4_^
+)
+
+Dynamic markings are another way to add a nuance to a note. They are
+entered by adding the name for the dynamic sign after the note. You
+should not enter a dash between the name and the note.footnote(This
+ is inconsistent. We hope that this will be fixed in a later
+ version of the language.)
+mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
+ c4 \ff c4 \fp c4 c4 \ppp c4 c4 \sfz
+)
+COMMENT(UGH)
+
+sect(Bridging the notes: beams, slurs and ties)
+
+Up till now most of the typesetting concerned simple fixed symbols
+only. Now we turn to variable symbols: symbols that run from one note
+to another. In LilyPond terminology, such a symbol is called a
+em(spanner). To print a spanner, you have to attach a marker to the
+note that begins it and to the one that ends it.
+
+
+The first example of such a symbol is the slur. For the slur, the
+start marker is the opening parenthesis. It won't be a surprise that
+the stopping marker is the closing parenthesis.
+For example:
+mudela(fragment,center,verbatim)( c'4( )c'4 )
+
+otice that the parentheses should be between the notes.footnote(The
+location of the parentheses might be changed in a future version of
+the language.)
+
+It is your job to make sure that each slur that you start also ends.
+If it doesn't end, then Bad Things are likely to happen. The slur is
+quite flexible: you can nest nop(slurs,)footnote(This is inconsistent when
+compared to the syntax for articulation hints. This will probably be
+fixed soon.) and you can connect a note with a slur on both the left and the
+right side:
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ c'4(( )c''4 )c'4( )g'4
+)
+
+Another spanner is the beam (see bind(Figure)ref(mud:beam)). It
+indicates the duration of the connected notes, and thus it acts like an
+extended version of the flag. Secondly, the pattern of
+left/right-pointing beams hints at the metric structure of the
+measure.
+
+
+latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h])
+ center(
+ mudela(fragment)([c'8 c'8] [c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16] [c'16. c'32 c'32 c'16.] )
+ latexcommand(\caption{Some beams})
+ label(mud:beam)
+ )
+latexcommand(\end{figure})
+
+
+Strictly speaking, a beam is not a musical concept. The pattern of a
+beam can be derived from the structure of the time signature and the durations
+of the notes. It is merely a device that helps you understand the
+rhythms notated. Unfortunately, LilyPond is not smart enough to insert
+beams into your music on her own. You will have to instruct her by
+marking the starting and stopping point of the beam with `code([)' and
+`code(])' respectively, e.g.
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ [g'8 g'8]
+)
+
+LilyPond has code that guesses what the pattern should look like, so
+that you don't have to specify the beaming for complicated
+patterns.footnote(Unfortunately the algorithm used is not foolproof yet:
+ code([c8. c32 c32]) will produce incorrect results.)
+
+Again, it is your responsibility to make sure that you end every beam
+that you start.
+
+A third spanner is similar to the slur: the tie. The tie looks like a
+slur, but a slur connects whole chords, whereas the tie connects
+note heads. Tied notes should be played as one long note.
+In analogy with TeX()'s tie (which ties together words with a
+space), LilyPond's tie is entered as a tilde, ~.
+mudela(verbatim,center,fragment)(c''1 ~ c''4)
+
+The input convention for the tilde is somewhat peculiar when used in
+conjunction with chords. Internally, the extra information that is
+represented by the tilde has to be attached to a note (or to a rest,
+for that matter). For this reason, you can't put the tilde between
+two chords (as in code( <c' g'> ~ <c' g'>)). The tilde sign must be
+directly after a note of the chords. It does not matter which
+one. The following example demonstrates this:
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ <c'1 ~ g' es''> <c'4 g' es''>
+)
+
+sect(Commands)
+label(sec:commands)
+
+Up till now, we only printed notes, and correspondingly only entered
+notes. But notation contains many other constructs, constructs that
+help you with reading those notes. Examples of such constructs are
+clefs, time signatures, keys etc.
+
+If you look carefully at the example in
+bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1), you will notice that the output
+includes some bar lines and clefs, and that there are no references to
+those in the input. They were generated automatically.
+
+Not all such hints can be inserted automatically, and you can also
+override some of the settings. This can be done by inserting various
+commands between the music. The general form of these commands is
+center(
+ em(keyword) sc(arguments)
+)
+
+em(keyword)s are words that have a special meaning to the parser of
+Mudela. Because the parser must be able to distinguish the keywords
+from note names, they have to be preceded by a so-called escape
+character, the backslash, `code(\)'. To separate the arguments from
+any notes that might follow the arguments, you have to end your
+command with a semicolon. An added benefit of this construction is
+that the commands stand out between your notes, because of the
+backslashes.
+
+So the general form actually is `code(\keyword argument argument ... ;)'
+Let us review these commands:
+
+description(
+dit(code(\clef) var(clefname)) This command sets the current clef for notation,
+ i.e., a clef symbol is printed and the notes following this command
+ are shifted vertically. The argument is a string, the name of the
+ new clef. The default clef is the treble clef.
+ mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \clef "bass"; c'4
+ \clef "treble"; c'4
+ \clef "alto"; c'4
+ )
+dit(code(\key) var(pitch)) This command changes the current key signature. The
+ key signature is printed at the start of every line. The argument
+ is the name of the corresponding major key. The key of C-minor can
+ thus be specified as `code(\key es)'.
+
+dit(code(\accidentals) var(pitchlist))
+
+This command changes the current key signature. The signature is
+given in the form of a list of accidentals, which can be useful for
+unconventional keys. The key of C-minor can be specified as
+`code(\accidentals bes es as)'. The command `code(\accidentals fis es
+bis)' provides a more exotic example.
+
+
+dit(code(\time) var(numerator)code(/)var(denominator))
+ This command chages the current time signature. LilyPond uses the
+ time signature to
+ calculate where to place the bars that start a measure. These bars
+ in turn are the places where a system can be broken into lines.
+
+ The default value for this time signature is common time (4/4). You
+ can also tell this from the Twinkle ``Twinkle Little
+Star'' example in bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1). This
+song actually has a 2/4 time signature, so a metrically more correct
+ version would start with as follows:
+ mudela(fragment,center,verbatim)(
+ \time 2/4; c'4 c' g' g'
+ )
+
+
+dit(code(\cadenza) var(togglevalue)) When typesetting music without a
+regular meter (such as an ad libitum cadenza), no bar lines should be
+printed. In LilyPond you can achieve this by issuing the command
+`code(\cadenza 1)': it turns off the automatically
+generated bar lines.
+
+You switch them on again with `code(\cadenza 0)', and then a bar line
+is printed. LilyPond will act as if you are again at the start of a
+measure.
+
+dit(code(\bar) var(bartype))
+ This command lets you print special bar lines, such as repeats. You
+ can also use it to allow line breaks when entering cadenzas. The
+ argument var(bartype) is a string that describes what kind of bar line to print.
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \bar "|:"; c'4 \bar ":|:"; c'4 \bar ":|"; c'4 \bar "||";
+ c'4 \bar "empty"; c'4 \bar "|.";
+)
+ The command `code(\bar "empty")' does not create any visible bar
+ line, but it does tells LilyPond to allow a linebreak
+ at that position.
+
+dit(code(\partial) var(duration)) some music starts with a measure that
+isn't fully filled, a so-called upstep. The code(\partial) command
+allows you to make
+upsteps. The argument is a duration similar to the duration of a note.
+Example:
+ mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \time 4/4;
+ \partial 4;
+ [d'8 dis'] e' c''4 e'8 c''4
+ )
+
+ dit(code(\grouping) var(durationslist)) sets the metric structure of the measure.
+ Its effect can best be shown by an example:
+ mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \time 5/16;
+ \grouping 16*3 16*2;
+ [c'8 c'16 c'8]
+ \grouping 16*2 16*3;
+ [c'8 c'16 c'8]
+ \grouping 16*5 ;
+ [c'8 c'16 c'8]
+ )
+
+In practice, you won't be needing this command very often: the
+grouping is switched automatically when you issue a code(\time)
+command. It is set to a combination of groups
+of 2 and 3 beats, with as many groups of
+3 as possible (in other words: 4/4 is divided in two times two beats
+(2+2), 8/8 in 3+3+2)
+)
+
+The commands that are described above aren't really music, but they
+can be used in the same places as notes. This makes the grammar of the
+language simpler. It is possible to put a command into a chord.
+For example, the following two snippets of Mudela produce identical output.
+verb(
+ <c4 e g \time 2/4;>
+ \time 2/4; <c4 e g>
+)
+
+
+
+sect(Complex music: more than one staff)
+label(tutorial:more-staffs)
+
+
+Now we explain how to typeset music that runs in multiple staffs.
+Consider the following---somewhat unrealistic---example:
+
+mudela(fragment)(
+ \type GrandStaff <e'4 {\clef bass; g4^""} >
+)
+
+ The music consists of two notes. Perhaps this is sheet music for a
+piano player, and one note is meant to be played with the left hand,
+and the other with the right hand. That music would sound the same if
+it were written as a single chord on a single staff, i.e.,
+mudela(fragment)(
+ <g4 e'4>
+)
+
+
+This is another example where we can see that there can be a difference
+between a musical idea, and the way it is expressed in notation.
+
+The Mudela construct for multiple staffs reflects the similarity
+between the two examples: to get multiple staffs in Mudela you enter a
+chord, with an additional instruction to tell LilyPond that the chord
+does not represent notes stacked together, but staffs stacked
+together.
+
+If a piece of music is to be interpreted as a staff, then this can be
+expressed with the code(\type) construct. The following input says
+``the quarter note with pitch e should be put on a staff.''
+
+verb(
+ \type Staff e'4
+)
+
+The same can be done for the other note, i.e.,
+
+verb(
+ \type Staff g4
+)
+
+If you want to stack these staffs, you must create a chord of both:
+
+verb(
+ < \type Staff e'4
+ \type Staff g4
+ >
+)
+
+This looks reasonable, but the effect of this input is not what you
+might expect (try it!). When interpreting this chord LilyPond will
+start with the first entry. She'll look for a (nameless) staff. Such a
+staff is not found, so it is created. On this staff the code(e) note
+is put. When the second code(\type) entry is read, LilyPond will
+start looking for a nameless staff. The staff that contains the
+code(e) is found, and the code(g) is put there as well.
+
+The correct solution is to label both code(\type) constructs with
+different names, for example code(trebleStaff) and code(bassStaff).
+This makes LilyPond distinguish between them, and create two staffs:
+
+mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
+ < \type Staff = trebleStaff e'4
+ \type Staff = bassStaff g4
+ >
+)
+
+The names that you choose do not matter just as long as they are
+different. This is almost right, except for the brace at the left and
+the clef of the second staff. The bass clef will be taken care of in
+the next section. If you want a brace, then you have to tell LilyPond
+that the chord you just formed is to be interpreted as a so-called
+grand staff. This is also done with the code(\type) command.
+mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
+ \type GrandStaff <
+ \type Staff = treblestaff e'4
+ \type Staff = bassstaff g4
+ >
+)
+
+sect(Appending instead of stacking: sequential music)
+label(tutorial:voice)
+
+The previous section dealt with a pretty hypothetical situation: sheet
+music with two staffs and each staff containing only one single note.
+In real-life situations staffs contain more than one note. They
+contain music that has to be played in sequence. A staff can contain
+a em(voice). We haven't learned how to make a voice yet: we need a
+new construct to express this notion of `voice'.
+
+The construct is called em(sequential) music. A list of musical
+objects (e.g., notes, chords or commands) can be made into sequential
+music by enclosing the list in braces; for example:
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ { c'4 c'4 }
+)
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ { <c'4 e'> <e' g'> }
+)
+
+
+We could have called this construct more colloquially `voice', but
+this would cause confusion later on, when a second kind of voice
+enters the scene. Similar confusion might arise from the word
+`chord', therefore from now on, we will talk about `simultaneous
+music', when we refer to items enclosed in < and >.
+
+
+The notion of a em(new) construct needs some explanation: we have been
+using sequential music all the time, except that it was hidden in the
+red tape in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:introduction).
+
+
+
+If we want to put whole voices onto a staff, then we have to
+substitute sequential music for the single notes in the example from
+the previous section. A code(\clef) command in the second piece of
+sequential
+music will also set the clef in
+the bass staff.
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \type GrandStaff <
+ \type Staff = treblestaff { e'4 f'}
+ \type Staff = bassstaff {\clef "bass"; g a }
+ >
+)
+
+COMMENT(You can nest simultaneous music and chords in any way you want. If
+you are interested in the entire story, you should consult
+bind(Chapter)ref(chap:features), which has a grammar in
+bind(Section)ref(sec:grammar).)
+
+sect(Notation context)
+
+This section is about translation contexts, a topic of LilyPond that
+is somewhat advanced. You don't have to understand this to use
+LilyPond to print simple music. If you don't want to typeset fancy
+polyphonic music or tweak the LilyPond notation engine, you can skip
+the next two sections.
+
+In bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs) it was explained, that there
+are more ways to notate a simple chord: as a single voice on a single
+staff or in multiple staffs (and we'll soon see, that you can typeset
+it as multiple voices on a staff). Obviously the concept of staff is not
+really something musical. But what is it then?
+
+
+The most simplistic explanation is: a staff is a peculiarity of the
+notation system. In other words, a staff is a graphic device, a
+special picture of five lines on which one can print note heads. To
+avoid confusion, we will call this view on the concept of staff
+`staff symbol' from now on.
+
+
+There is more to it than meets the eye and mind. A staff
+contains---besides a staff symbol--- some more components:
+itemize(
+it()A staff can a have a key signature (printed at the left)
+it()A staff has bar lines
+it()A staff has a clef (printed at the left)
+)
+To explain what a staff really is, we'll try to print music without
+these components. If these components aren't printed, it is still
+possible to print music:
+mudela()(\score{
+\melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
+\paper {
+ linewidth = -1.;
+ Staff = \translator {
+ \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
+
+ defaultclef = violin;
+
+ \consists "Timing_engraver";
+ \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
+
+ \accepts "Voice";
+ }
+ }
+})
+
+As you can see, one can still make out the general form of the melody
+and the rhythm that is to be played, but the notation is difficult to
+read and the musical information is not complete. The stress pattern
+in the notes can't be deduced from this output. For this, we need a
+time signature:
+
+mudela()(
+\score {
+ \melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
+ \paper{
+ linewidth = -1.;
+ Staff = \translator {
+ \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
+ defaultclef = violin;
+ \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
+ \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
+ \accepts "Voice";
+ }
+ }
+})
+
+Technically speaking you know where the strong and weak beats are, but
+it is difficult to find them quickly. Bar lines help you in finding
+the location within the measure of the notes:
+mudela()(
+\score {
+ \melodic \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
+ \paper{
+ linewidth = -1.;
+ Staff = \translator {
+ \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
+ defaultclef = violin;
+ \consists "Bar_engraver";
+ \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
+ \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
+ \accepts "Voice";
+ }
+ }
+})
+
+We can remedy part of the difficulties with reading pitches by adding a staff
+symbol:
+
+mudela()(\score{
+ \melodic\relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4
+a'4 f4 e c d2 } \paper {
+ linewidth = -1.;
+ Staff = \translator {
+ \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
+
+ defaultclef = violin;
+ \consists "Bar_engraver";
+ \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
+ \consists "Staff_sym_engraver";
+ \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
+
+ \accepts "Voice";
+ }
+ }
+})
+
+This makes the output decidedly easier to read, but you still don't
+know what the pitches of the notes above are. So this is still not
+enough. But suppose you see the following notation:
+mudela()(\score {
+ \melodic \relative c' {\clef alto; \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
+\paper {
+ linewidth = -1.;
+ Staff = \translator {
+ \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
+
+ defaultclef = violin;
+ \consists "Bar_engraver";
+ \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
+ \consists "Clef_engraver";
+ \consists "Staff_sym_engraver";
+ \consists "Timing_engraver";
+ \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
+
+ \accepts "Voice";
+ }
+ }
+})
+
+Now you know the pitch of the notes: you look at the start of the line
+and see a clef, with this clef, you can determine the notated pitches.
+You have found the em(context) in which the notation is to be
+interpreted!
+
+So the context determines the relationship between a piece of music
+and its notation: you, the reader, use context to deduce music from
+notation. Because LilyPond is a notation ``writer'' instead of a
+reader, context works the other way around for Lily: with context a
+piece of music can be converted to notation.
+The components of a staff form context, and context is needed to read
+and write notation. This motivates the following definition.
+
+quote(
+A bf(notation context) is a conversion from music to notation.
+)
+
+The example focused mainly on on staffs, but a staff is not the only
+type of notation context. Notation contexts may be nested: you can
+print polyphonic music by putting multiple `Voice' contexts in one
+`Staff' context. The arguments of the code(\type) command (Staff,
+GrandStaff) were in fact all names of different contexts.
+The notions of ``current clef'' and ``current position within the
+measure'' are all properties of notation contexts. Commands like
+code(\clef) and code(\cadenza) change these properties.
+
+
+The following is a list of the contexts that are supported by
+LilyPond:
+description(
+
+dit(Voice) The code(Voice) context is a context that corresponds to a
+ voice on a staff. This context handles the conversion of noteheads,
+ dynamic signs, stems, beams, super- and subscripts, slurs, ties and rests
+
+dit(Staff) The code(Staff) context handles clefs, bar lines, keys,
+ accidentals. A code(Staff) context can contain multiple code(Voice)
+ contexts.
+
+dit(RhythmicStaff) The code(RhythmicStaff) context is like the staff,
+ but much simpler: the notes are printed on one line, and pitches are
+ ignored. code(RhythmicStaff) can contain code(Voice) contexts.
+
+dit(GrandStaff) A code(GrandStaff) context contains code(Staff)
+ contexts, and it adds a brace to the output at the
+ nop(left.)footnote(This is a major deficiency in the current
+ implementation. Currently stems,
+ slurs and beams cannot be printed across two staffs.
+In reality, a grand staff is a hybrid of one big staff and two stacked staffs.)
+
+ A code(GrandStaff) context can contain multiple
+ code(Staff)s. Typically, it will contain two code(Staff)s, one
+ treble staff, and one bass staff. The bar lines of the contained
+ staffs are connected vertically.
+
+dit(StaffGroup) A code(StaffGroup) context contains code(Staff) or
+ code(Lyrics) contexts, and prints a bracket at the left. The bar
+ lines in the participating staffs are connected.
+
+dit(Lyrics) As its name suggests, The code(Lyrics) context deals with
+ typesetting lyrics. This topic will be covered in
+ bind(Section)ref(tutorial:lyrics).
+
+dit(Score) The code(Score) context is the toplevel context: no context can
+ contain a code(Score) context. The code(Score) context handles the
+ administration of time signatures. It also makes sure that items
+ such as clefs, time signatures, and key-signatures are aligned across staffs.
+
+ The code(Score) can contain code(Staff), code(StaffGroup), code(Lyrics), code(GrandStaff) and
+ code(RhythmicStaff) contexts.
+
+COMMENT(do ChoireStaff)
+)
+
+
+ Later on, in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:engravers) we will
+explain how you can create your own contexts.
+
+If you are familiar with structured documents (like HTML, SGML or
+LaTeX()), you might see the analogy of a context with a stylesheet: a
+stylesheet is neither presentation nor information, but rather a
+recipe em(how) a specific piece of information should be presented.
+Analogously, a notation context is neither music nor notation, but the
+conversion between the two. The big difference with text is that in
+music notation the elements provided by context are essential to
+understanding what is notated.
+
+
+
+sect(Polyphonic music (or: Notation context properties))
+
+In the last section we explained that a notation context can have
+properties that influence the conversion from music to notation. A
+simple example of such a property is the clef: the type of clef partially
+determines the vertical position of note heads in a staff. Some of
+these properties can be modified by commands such as code(\clef) and
+code(\time). But there is more: notation contexts also have
+properties are settable in a generic fashion. We will demonstrate
+this feature by printing multiple voices on a staff.
+
+In polyphonic (keyboard) music and orchestral scores often more than
+one voice is printed on one staff. We'll explain how to achieve this
+effect with LilyPond. The effect is not unlike the two stacked staffs
+from bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs), except that we don't want
+to stack staffs but voices. Thus, the general template is the following:
+verb(
+ \type Staff <
+ \type Voice = one ...
+ \type Voice = two ...
+ >
+)
+
+On the ellipsis there should be music going from left to right, in
+otherr words, there should be sequential music, notes enclosed in
+braces. Let us try the following simple melodies:
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+\type "Staff" <
+ \type "Voice" = "one" { r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
+ \type "Voice" = "two" { g'2 f'4 e'4 }
+>)
+
+As you can see the result is not quite perfect. The notes on the last
+two beats look like plain chords and not like separate voices. What
+really happened was that the stems of the upper and lower voices were
+printed on top of each other. If you have tried running this example, you will probably
+have noticed a complaint about ``too many
+clashing notecolumns'' during the LilyPond run.
+This complaint refers to the overlapping stems.
+
+To remedy this, engravers traditionally make the stems of the upper
+and lower voice point in different directions: the stems of the lower
+voice point down, and the stems of the upper up, as shown in
+bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig).
+
+Surely the direction of a single stem is a property of the stem as a
+graphical object. But the fact that all of the stems in a voice point
+in the same direction is not directly graphical. Since this is a
+property shared by all the stems in the voice, it is logical to
+consider this property to be a property of the context code(Voice).
+And this is how it's done in LilyPond: the context code(Voice) has an
+attribute whose value is the direction to use
+for stems. You can change it to `up'
+by issuing the following phrase:footnote(The name code(ydirection) is
+no mistake. The property also controls the up/down directions of
+super-/subscripts, slurs, ties, etc.)
+
+verb(
+ \property "Voice"."ydirection" = "1"
+)
+
+This command should be read as ``change the property called
+code(ydirection) within the current code(Voice) context to the value
+code(-1).'' For the property code(ydirection) the value code(1) means
+`up', and code(-1) means `down'. The proper way to code the
+polyphonic example is given in bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig).
+
+latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h])
+mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+ \type "Staff" <
+ \type "Voice" = "one" {
+ \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
+ r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
+ \type "Voice" = "two" {
+ \property Voice.ydirection = "-1"
+ g'2 f'4 e'4 }
+ >
+)
+ latexcommand(\caption{multiple voices})
+ label(tutorial:multi-voice-fig)
+latexcommand(\end{figure})
+
+Other properties can also be set, and they can be within different
+contexts. In general, you can set a property by specifying
+code(\property) var(contexttype)code(.)var(propertyname) code(=)
+var(value). Both var(ContextType), var(PropertyName) and var(Value)
+should be strings.
+
+The effect of a property is pretty much hardwired into the
+implementation (and thus subject to change), so we will not deal with
+all the possible properties in detail. Among other characteristics that
+can be set are the layout of slurs and beams. The initialisation file
+file(property.ly) explains most properties.
+
+We conclude this section with another example of a context property.
+Polyphonic music that has three or four voices can't be printed by
+simply changing the directions of the stems for each voice, obviously.
+Traditionally, some chords are shifted horizontally to print if this many
+voices have to be printed.
+LilyPond can also do this, and the property that controls the
+horizontal shifting is called code(hshift). The notes in a
+code(Voice) context that has code(hshift) set to a true value (i.e.,
+non-zero or non-empty), will be shifted horizontally in the case of a
+collision. The following example demonstrates the effect.
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \type "Staff" <
+ \type "Voice" = "one" {
+ \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
+ r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
+ \type "Voice" = "two" {
+ \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
+ \property Voice.hshift = 1
+ g'2 f'4 e'4 }
+ \type "Voice" = "three" {
+ \property Voice.ydirection = "-1"
+ [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4
+ }
+ >
+)
+
+sect(Lyrics)
+label(tutorial:lyrics)
+
+Now for something completely different: Lyrics. Lyrics are also
+considered to be music, although a lyric by itself does not have any
+pitch. Producing lyrics has two aspects. First, you have to enter the
+text, i.e., the syllables along with their durations.
+After this, you have to specify how to convert these to graphics.
+
+Lyrics consist of syllables, which are strings together with
+durations. Previously we only entered note names, so for entering
+lyrics we have to instruct LilyPond that what we enter are not note
+names but words---or rather: strings. This instruction is the keyword
+code(\lyric). After entering this keyword you can enter a musical
+construct---sequential music, simultaneous music, code(\type)
+entries, etc.--- but with syllables in stead of pitches. For example:
+verb( \lyric { 'got8 me on my knees4, Le-8 lie! })
+
+The effect of code(\lyric) can be compared with the effect of the
+doublequote character, code("), for it also changes the lexical
+meaning of spaces and characters. This mode is another example of a
+handy input feature of the language.
+
+Next comes the conversion to notation. LilyPond can't (yet) figure
+out that lyrics need different treatment than notes. As a result, the
+default conversion will try to put the text you entered as note heads
+onto a staff, and this will fail. This default must be overriden with
+a code(\type) keyword. Printing syllables of text in a line is done
+by a context called code(Lyrics). You can select this context with
+the code(\type) keyword. Here is a simple example:
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got8 me on my knees,4 Le-8 lie! })
+
+The result is technically more or less correct, but without a melody it
+just doesn't work, so let's add a blob of cream:
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ <
+ \type Staff { c''8. c''16 bes'8. a'16 g'4 f'8 g'4. }
+ \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got8. me16 on8. my16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4. }
+ >
+)
+
+The strings that makes up each syllable in the lyrics block are passed
+along to TeX() verbatim, so if you are proficient with TeX() you can
+do various nifty things. Just keep in mind that a syllable either
+starts with a letter (a character in the range `code(a)' to `code(z)'
+or `code(A)' to `code(Z)'), or it is a string enclosed quotes. It ends
+with either a number for the duration, or a space. A last feature
+that should be mentioned is the space-lyric: if you want to enter
+a single ``syllable'' that consists of multiple words, i.e., words
+separated by spaces, you should use an
+underscore instead of a space. All these tricks are demonstrated in
+the following example:
+
+COMMENT( urg
+\type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_m\textbf{e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.}
+\type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_m{\bf e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.}
+)
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(<
+ \type Staff { c''8. c''16 bes'8. a'16 g'4 f'8 g'4. }
+ \type Lyrics \lyric { 'got_me4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 "3s,"4 Le-8 lie!4.}
+>
+)
+
+The spacing in the above example is a bit skewed because Lily can't
+tell that the long syllables you entered are not ordinary characters,
+but expand to really small symbols.
+
+
+
+
+COMMENT(Rood is de kleur van geluk.)
+COMMENT(Dat geldt ook voor haar.)
+
+
+sect(Toplevel Mudela)
+
+Now the time has come to unravel the red tape that we have hidden from
+you in the introduction. Mudela has a hierarchical structure for we
+have seen that sequential and simultaneous music can be nested.
+Mudela also has other `blocks' that can be nested. The general syntax
+for a block is code(\keyword { ... }).
+
+When you run LilyPond, what happens is that you define music, and
+specify one (or more) conversions to apply to that music, for example
+a conversion to notation. This is done by putting the definition of
+the music and the definition of the conversion together in a
+code(\score) block, e.g.,
+verb(
+\score {
+ % ... music ...
+ \paper {}
+})
+
+This is almost the context that should be around all
+of the previous examples. The precise context reads thus:
+verb(
+\score {
+ \melodic { ... }
+ \paper {}
+})
+On the ellipsis, you entered what shown as the example input.
+You can see that in the
+above example, the code(\melodic { ... }) forms the music, the
+code(\paper {}) is a conversion to paper (notation, that is). The
+code(\paper) definition is copied from a default definition
+(which is in the initialisation file file(paper16.ly)).
+The paper part also contains
+the definition of the contexts.
+
+The keyword code(\melodic) is analogous to the code(\lyric) keyword. It
+will switch the tokenizer into a mode that interprets plain words as
+note names. If it can't recognize the words as a note name, it will
+assume that they are strings. That is the reason why you can write
+code(\clef bass) in stead of code(\clef "bass"); most of the strings
+in code(\melodic) mode can be written without quotes.
+
+The braces that you see after the code(\melodic) keyword are the
+braces that are around sequential music. Because of these braces, the
+sequences of notes in our simple examples were sequential (and not
+simultaneous). As a result the notes were printed from left to right,
+and not stacked.
+
+sect(Identifiers)
+
+
+Now that we are comfortable with the toplevel entries in a mudela
+file, we can investigate some more of the recreations on toplevel, in
+particular em(identifiers). Generally you can define an identifier by
+entering code(identifierName = ... )
+where there can be a variety of things on the ellipsis.
+
+Here is a (partial) list of what you can abbreviate with identifiers
+at top-level.
+itemize(
+it()The code(\score) block
+it()The code(\paper) block
+it()The code(\midi) block (to be explained in
+ bind(Section)ref(tutorial:sound))
+it()Music (sequential music, simultaneous music etc.)
+it()Durations
+it()Strings
+it()Translators (to be explained in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:engravers))
+it()Integers
+it()Reals
+)
+
+When you refer
+to the abbreviated entity, you must precede code(identifierName)
+with a backslash, i.e., code(\identifierName). For example:
+mudela(verbatim)(
+ czerny = \melodic { [c16 g e g] }
+ \score {
+ \melodic \type GrandStaff <
+ { c''2 g''2 }
+ { \clef bass; \czerny \czerny \czerny \czerny}
+ >
+ \paper {
+ linewidth = -1.0;
+ stem_length = 12.0*\internote;
+ }
+ }
+)
+
+
+
+Another interesting feature of this example are the assignments within
+the paper block. Some blocks, such as code(\paper), have a scope of
+their own. In the case of the code(\paper) block, these variables
+influence the characteristics of the output. As is shown, you can
+tune quantities like the stemlength, and enter simple expressions.
+The purpose of the negative linewidth is to prevent the music from
+being justified. The identifiers that are meaningful are for the
+paper block is strongly implementation dependent, so they will not be
+listed here. Moreover, since most of the values are predefined to
+sensible defaults, there usually is no need to tune these values.
+
+Recall the properties of a context, that could be set with
+code(\property). It is a very general mechanism to tune the output of
+the music, that is neatly separated from the real music.
+Unfortunately, it is not convenient to type or read, and the precise
+effect of a setting property isn't always apparent from its
+definition. To remedy this, we can use an identifier to capture the
+meaning of a code(\property).
+
+mudela(verbatim)(
+stemup = \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
+stemdown = \property Voice.ydirection = "-1"
+shift = \property Voice.hshift = "1"
+\score {
+ \type "Staff" \melodic <
+ \type "Voice" = "one" {
+ \stemup
+ r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
+ \type "Voice" = "two" {
+ \stemup
+ \shift
+ g'2 f'4 e'4 }
+ \type "Voice" = "three" {
+ \stemdown
+ [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4
+ }
+ >
+ \paper{ linewidth = -1.0\pt; }
+}
+)
+
+Several abbreviations like code(\stemup) are defined in the
+standard initialisation file file(property.ly). Setting or changing
+context properties can have a similar effect as the commands that were
+discussed in bind(Section)ref(sec:commands). Don't be fooled by the
+similarity in appearance between a declared property-setting entry
+and a real command. Real commands are hardcoded into the language
+and they have to be terminated by semicolons.
+
+You can also use identifiers to break up the heavy nesting that can occur
+in the code(\score) block. Another useful application is
+parametrisation of the music: if you use identifiers in the
+code(\score) block, you can make variations of the music by simply
+redefining those identifiers. One particular application of this is
+part extraction: by using identifiers and redefining them, one can
+print extracted parts and a full orchestral score from the same
+music definition.
+
+
+
+sect(Sound output)
+label(tutorial:sound)
+
+You get output by combining music with definition a conversion to
+output. Up till now we have only focused on the graphic output of
+traditional engraving. But there is no reason why that should be the
+only form of output for music. LilyPond currently supports one other
+conversion: the conversion from abstract music to sound. You can have
+LilyPond play the music that you entered. The format that is used
+for this output is MIDI.
+
+The only information that you need to enter is the
+ nop(tempo)footnote(Unfortunately,
+this the only thing that can be tuned at this
+time. This is a limitation: the tempo of music can vary throughout
+the music.) for the performance. The syntax for the tempo is
+code(\tempo )var(duration) = var(beatsperminute);), for example:
+verb(
+\score {
+ ...music...
+ \midi { \tempo 4 = 76; }
+}
+)
+
+The most useful purpose of this sound output is to prooflisten your
+files: typing errors (especially if they involve accidentals) stand
+out when you listen.
+The output was implemented in a very rudimentary manner, so it is
+probably not worth listening to for any other reason.
+
+
+sect(Contexts revisited: engravers)
+label(tutorial:engravers)
+
+As was promised, we will now take a dive into the more wizardrous parts
+of LilyPond: redefining (notation) contexts. We previously explained
+that a context
+itemize(
+it()is a conversion from music to notation,
+it()can contain other contexts
+it()handles specific notation constructs
+)
+
+This characterization almost automatically explains what the definition of a
+context should look like:
+itemize(
+it()It should be part of the ``notation output definition,'' i.e., the
+ code(\paper) block
+it()
+ It should contain a specification of what other contexts may be contained
+ in the context we're defining.
+it()
+ It should contain a list of the notation constructs to be
+ handled.
+)
+
+In practice, the context definition
+looks like this:
+verb(
+\translator
+{
+ \type "Engraver_group_engraver";
+ \accepts "...";
+ \accepts "...";
+ \accepts "...";
+
+ \consists " ... ";
+ \consists " ... ";
+ \consists " ... ";
+
+ propertyname = "value";
+ propertyname = "value";
+
+} )
+
+ This is encoded by the
+
+The code(\translator) keyword opens the block for translation (or
+context) definition. The code(\type) keyword explains to Lily that
+the context should be formed by taking an (empty) instance of
+code(Engraver_group_engraver). The code(Engraver_group_engraver) is a
+C++ class from the source code to Lily. The code(\accepts) entries
+explain what kind of contexts this context could contain. If we were
+to define a context for a staff, the definition would typically
+contain code(\accepts "Voice";).
+
+The code(\consists) entries specify which notation constructs should
+be handled. This needs a little explanation: LilyPond contains the
+code for quite a large number of basic building blocks for notation
+generation, and each building block handles only one notation
+construct. The name of such a building block is `engraver'. You can
+specify which notation construct a context should handle by specifying
+which engravers should be part of the context. The code(\consists
+"Foobar") entry really means ``add an instance of code(Foobar) to the
+translation group.''
+
+
+For example if this context should print time signatures, the definition
+should include `code(\consists "Time_signature_engraver";)'. Again
+code(Time_signature_engraver) is a class from the source code of LilyPond.
+
+
+
+Finally, one can pre-set some properties in a context definition.
+
+As a practical example, we will show you how to typeset polymetric
+music, i.e., music where the meter can differ for each staff. The
+solution is not very complicated: normally all timing information
+(time signature, rhythmic grouping) is synchronised across each staff. In
+LilyPond this is expressed by having only one registration for timing
+information for all staffs. To be precise, there is only one
+code(Timing_engraver), and it is located in the top level context, the
+code(Score) context.
+
+All staffs use the information in the global code(Timing_engraver)
+for generating bar lines and time signatures. In polymetric music, this timing
+information can be different for every staff, so we should redefine
+the code(Staff) context to include and the code(Score) context to exclude the
+code(Timing_engraver).
+
+mudela(verbatim)(
+polymetricpaper = \paper {
+ Score = \translator {
+ \type Score_engraver;
+ \consists "Score_priority_engraver";
+ \consists "Priority_horizontal_align_engraver";
+ \consists "Vertical_align_engraver";
+ % \consists "Timing_engraver"; % removed Timing_engraver
+ \accepts "Staff";
+ }
+
+ Staff = \translator {
+ \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
+
+ defaultclef = violin;
+
+ \consists "Bar_engraver";
+ \consists "Clef_engraver";
+ \consists "Key_engraver";
+ \consists "Local_key_engraver";
+ \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
+ \consists "Timing_engraver"; % added Timing_engraver
+ \consists "Staff_sym_engraver";
+ \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver";
+
+ \accepts "Voice";
+ }
+}
+\score {
+ \melodic <
+ \type Staff = one { \time 2/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
+ \type Staff = two { \time 3/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
+ >
+ \paper { \polymetricpaper
+ linewidth = -1.;
+ }
+}
+)
+
+As you can see, we used the identifier code(polymetricpaper) to break
+up the large score block. More of these context definitions appear in
+the standard initialisation file file(engraver.ly).
+
+sect(Urtexts and context selection)
+label(tutorial:urtext)
+
+In bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs), we have shown you how to make
+multiple staffs, and explained that you have to label every staff (or
+more precisely: different contexts), to make sure that new ones are
+created when you need them. In this section, the real power of this
+mechanism will unveiled.
+
+By naming other contexts that you create, you can reference other contexts
+than the current context from within the music. For example, from within the music that you
+enter for staff code(One), one could enter a small piece of music,
+and send it to staff code(Two), e.g.,
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ <
+ \type Staff = one { c''4 \type Staff = two { c4 c4 } c''4 }
+ \type Staff = two { \clef bass; g,4 g,4 g,4 g,4 }
+ >
+)
+
+
+Another useful application of this feature is making Urtexts.
+em(Urtext) is the German word for `original text'. The Urtext
+edition of a piece of music, is an edition that reflects the original
+writing of the composer. Such editions are useful for musicologists,
+and performers that want to perform authentic interpretations. However,
+for mere mortals, the Urtext can be quite hard to read. It might not
+contain fingering and beaming, and typically it is full of footnotes.
+Moreover, common interpretations may have emerged---after the composer
+died. For this reason, the music that can be had as Urtext usually is also
+available in enhanced and edited editions.
+
+The mechanism of context selection can be used to fabricate an Urtext
+and an edited edition from em(one source). We will use the first few
+bars of bind(J.)bind(S.)Bach's lovely Cello suite bind(no.)I to
+demonstrate this. The example makes heavy use of space rests: a space
+rest is a like a rest that doesn't print anything. It can be used as
+a placeholder, to attach articulation marks to. It is entered as a
+note with the name code(s).
+
+mudela(verbatim)(
+ bach = \melodic { [c16 g e' d'] [e' g e' g] }
+
+ staffStuff = \melodic { \clef bass; \time 4/4; s1 \bar "|."; }
+
+ slursOne = \melodic { s16( s s s s16 s s )s }
+ slursTwo = \melodic { s16-. s s() s s16() s s ()s }
+
+ \score{
+ { < \type Voice = celloVoice { \bach \bach }
+ \type Voice = celloVoice { \slursOne \slursOne }
+ \staffStuff
+ >
+ <
+ \type Voice = celloVoice { \bach \bach }
+ \type Voice = celloVoice { \slursTwo \slursTwo }
+ \staffStuff
+ >
+ }
+ \paper {}
+ }
+)
+
+ The slurs that you define should be put on the music that is defined
+by the code(\bach) identifier. By labeling a code(Voice) context, and
+directing both the articulation and the notes to that same code(Voice)
+context, the articulation is put over the right notes.
+
+
+sect(Transposing)
+label(tutorial:more-grammar)
+
+COMMENT(In this section, we will complete the grammar for Music that was
+sketched earlier. )
+One of the things that you can do with music is
+em(transposing) it. If you want to transpose a piece of music, then
+you should prefix the keyword code(\transpose) along with the pitch
+(relative to the central C) for the transposition.footnote(the
+code(\type Staff) is to make sure that no separate staffs are created
+for the code(\scale) and code(\transpose cis' \scale) part.)
+
+
+mudela(verbatim)(
+scale = \melodic \relative c' { [c8 d e f] }
+\score {
+ \melodic {
+ \type Staff { \scale \transpose cis' \scale }
+ }
+ \paper { linewidth = -1.0; }
+})
+
+
+sect(Staff switching)
+
+We have seen that contexts can be nested. This means that they form a
+tree. It is possible to edit this tree: for example, a code(Voice)
+context can be taken out of a code(Staff) context, and put into
+another. This has the effect of the voice switching staffs (something
+that often happens in keyboard music). The syntax for this operation
+with these particular contexts is code(\translator Staff = newStaffName).
+
+The effect is analogous to the first example in section
+ref(tutorial:urtext), but with the code(\translator) construction it
+is possible to split the real music and the commands that determine in
+which staff the music is printed. For example:
+
+mudela(verbatim)(
+
+% real music
+aVoice = \type Voice = voiceA \melodic { c''4 c4 c4 c''4 }
+bVoice = \type Voice = voiceB \melodic { g,4 g,4 g,4 g,4 }
+
+% staff switching stuff
+switch = \type Voice = voiceA \melodic { s4 \translator Staff = staffB s4
+ s4 \translator Staff = staffA s4 }
+
+\score {
+ <
+ \type Staff = staffA < \aVoice \switch >
+ \type Staff = staffB < \bVoice \clef bass; >
+ >
+ \paper { linewidth = -1.; }
+}
+)
+
+Don't try to switch staffs when you are in the middle of a slur or
+beam, though. It doesn't work yet.
+
+sect(Hairy durations: triplets)
+
+In the previous section we explained an operation that changes the
+pitches of music, transposition. In this section we will explain an
+operation that modifies the duration of the notes that you enter.
+When notes are part of a triplet, then the real of duration of the
+notes are 2/3 part of what their shape indicates:
+mudela(fragment)(
+\[/3 c'4 c'4 c'4 \]/1
+)
+
+To support this notion, Mudela allows you to modify the duration of a
+note by multiplication or division. A code(c'4) note that would be in a
+triplet is written as code(c'4*2/3). If you sequence a few of these
+notes, you get a triplet.footnote(We added a normal staff in the example to
+show the difference.)
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+< \type Staff = staffA { c'8*2/3 c'8*2/3 c'8*2/3 c'4}
+ \type Staff = staffB { c''8 c''8 c''4 } >)
+
+LilyPond knows that these notes are no normal eighth notes, but the
+reader doesn't yet. To help the reader a beam or a bracket with a `3'
+should be printed. The special beam command `code([2/3)' and the
+matching close beam `code(]1/1)' will take care of that, and
+they also abbreviate the code(*2/3) part. If you want brackets in
+stead of beams, you can use `code(\[2/3])' and `code(\]1/1)'.
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+< \type Staff = staffA {
+ [2/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]1/1
+ \[2/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 \]1/1
+ }
+ \type Staff = staffB { [c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8] }
+>)
+
+Other tuplets can be entered in the same way.
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+< \type Staff = staffA {
+ \time 7/8;
+ [7/6 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]1/1
+ }
+ \type Staff = staffB {
+ \time 7/8;
+ [c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8] } >
+)
+
+For your convenience, code([2/3) can be further abbreviated to code([/3), and
+you can abbreviate code(]1/1) on the closing beam marker to code(]/1).
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+< \type Staff = staffA {
+ [/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]/1 c'4
+ }
+ \type Staff = staffB { [c''8 c''8] c''4 } >
+)
+
+
+bf(Important) the construct with code([/3) and
+code([/1) is a hack that sets a mode in the parser. This means that
+verb(id = \melodic { c8 c8 c8 }
+notATriplet =\melodic { [2/3 \id ]1/1 })
+does not produce a triplet. It will hopefully
+soon be replaced by a construction that mixes more elegantly with the
+grammar for Music.
+
+
+sect(Shortcuts for octaves)
+label(sec:relativeoctaves)
+
+Plain Mudela contains a lot of quotes to get the octaves right. This
+need for quotes can be reduced: most of the pitch intervals in
+conventional music are small. Therefore, it makes sense to leave out
+the quotes when the interval is small. We have built a mode that does
+exactly this. It is called the relative mode for octaves. You can
+switch it on by entering code(\relative). Then LilyPond will
+interpret every note as if they mean the note with the same name
+closest to the previous. You have to specify the first pitch because
+the first note of a list obviously has no predecessor. So, you can
+enter a scale without using octavation quotes, e.g.,
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \relative c' { c d e f g a b c }
+)
+
+For chords, the relative mode works slightly differently. In a
+sequence of chords, the first note of a chord gives the starting point
+for the next chord. We can demonstrate this with our twinkle twinkle example
+verb(
+ \relative c' {
+ c4 c <c g'> <c e g>
+ <c e a> <b d a'> <b2 d g>
+ <a4 d f> <bes d f> <bes c e> <g c e>
+ <e a d> <a, g' cis'> <d2 f d'>
+ }
+)
+
+LilyPond converts any music with code(\relative) prepended to absolute
+music immediately when it is read. Internally it is stored it in
+absolute pitches. Since the tutorial mainly deals with how to specify
+musical information, and not how to enter it conveniently, the
+tutorial doesn't use it.
+
+
+sect(Large pieces)
+label(tutorial:large-pieces)
+
+In our quest for a clean and powerfull music language, we took the effort
+of entering some larger pieces of music as well. From this we learned
+certain things that lead to direct improvements of Mudela, such as the
+relative mode. We also gained some practial experience, that resulted in a
+compilation of tips that may be of use to you.
+
+Entering a large piece of music will often imply the need to produce a
+conductor's score, as well as individual parts for all instruments. This
+can most easily be achieved making use of identifiers and including mudela
+files.
+
+subsect(Identifiers)
+
+Briefly introduced before, identifiers are your biggest help in structurising
+a large piece of music. As an example, we'll consider a string quartet.
+In short, it will look like this: verb(
+ global = \melodic{ }
+ violinoOne = \melodic \relative c { .. }
+ violinoTwo = \melodic \relative c { .. }
+ viola = \melodic \relative c { .. }
+ violoncello = \melodic \relative c { .. }
+)
+
+The code(\global) part contains everything that is global, i.e., the
+same, for each instrument. This may include time signature, key, repeat
+signs, different bar types, time signature- and key changes, rehearsal
+marks, etc.
+
+For each instrument, you'll have something vaguely resembling verb(
+ violinoOneStaff = \type Staff = violinoOne <
+ \property Staff.midi_instrument = "violin"
+ \property Staff.instrument = "Violino I"
+ \property Staff.instr = "Vl. I"
+ \global
+ \violinoOne
+ >
+)
+
+
+[Versions, relative mode,
+ barchecks, splitting of files]
+
+subsect(Including Mudela files)
+ref(subsect:include)
+
+You can include other Mudela files with the command code(\include):
+verb(
+\include "paper13.ly"
+\score {
+ ...
+ \paper { \paper_thirteen }
+})
+
+The file is looked for in the standard search path.
+
+
+subsect(Grouping of staffs)
+
+subsect(Versioning)
+
+sect(Titling)
+label(tutorial:titling)
+
+A piece of sheet music isn't complete without proper opening and
+closing titles. LilyPond does not have any real support for setting
+text: that is a job best left to TeX(). But you can pass messages to
+TeX() from the input file. You can write TeX() macros to handle
+these messages.
+To do this, you add a code(\header) block
+to your input file. The format is quite simple,
+
+verb(
+\header{
+ "key" = "value";
+ "key" = "value";
+ "key" = "value";
+ % etc.
+})
+
+When the results of the music typesetting are output, the contents of
+code(\header) are also up into the TeX() file. Tools like
+code(ly2dvi) can use this information to generate pretty titling for
+your input file. Consult the manual page of code(ly2dvi) for more
+details.
+
+
+The code(\header) block should be at toplevel in mudela, and
+preferably at the top of the file. If you have an input file with
+multiple code(\score) blocks, you should add a header to every score,
+describing the different sub parts of the music piece, eg.
+
+
+verb(\header {
+ "composer" = "Ludwig Van Bavaria";
+ "title" = "Symphonie Megalomane";
+ }
+ \score{
+ ... % some music
+ \header { movement = "Mit roher Kraft wild herausfahrend!"; }
+ \paper { }
+ }
+ \score{
+ ... % some more music
+ \header { movement = "Saut\'e comme un oeuf."; }
+ \paper { }
+ }
+)
+
+If you want you can also put the code(\header) block at the top of the
+input file; it will then be put into every output file automatically.
+This will make it clear what the file contains as soon as you open it.
+
+
+
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