@c -*-texinfo-*- @c TODO: @c * LilyPond Lilypond lilypond (sometimes: the program) @c * more details about running lilypond; error messages, @c compiling/viewing (emacs?) @c * where to go from First steps+More basics? @node Tutorial @chapter Tutorial @html @end html @menu * First steps:: Music language of LilyPond * Running LilyPond:: Printing music * More basics:: * Printing lyrics:: * A melody with chords :: * More stanzas:: * More movements :: Joining separate pieces of music * A piano excerpt:: Piano music * Fine tuning a piece:: * An orchestral score:: Conductor's score and individual parts * Integrating text and music:: Integrating text and music * End of tutorial:: The end @end menu Operating lilypond is done through text files: To print a piece of music, you enter the music in a file. When you run lilypond (normally using the program @code{ly2dvi}) on that file, the program produces another file which contains sheet music that you can print or view. This tutorial starts with a small introduction to the LilyPond music language. After this first contact, we will show you how to run LilyPond to produce printed output; you should then be able to create your first sheets of music. The tutorial continues with more and more complex examples. @node First steps @section First steps We start off by showing how very simple music is entered in LilyPond: you get a note simply by typing its @htmlref{note name}, from @samp{a} through @samp{g}. So if you enter @example c d e f g a b @end example @noindent then the result looks like this: @c ? @c \transpose c c' { c d e f g a b } @c @lily pond[notime] @c \property Score.timing = ##f @lilypond[notime, relative=2] c d e f g a b @end lilypond We will continue with this format: First we show a snippet of input, then the resulting output. The length of a note is specified by adding a number, @samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a @rglos{half note}, and so on: @example a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 @end example @lilypond[notime] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \transpose c c' { a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 s16_" " } @end lilypond If you don't specify a @rglos{duration}, the previous one is used: @example a4 a a2 a @end example @lilypond[notime] \property Score.timing = ##f \transpose c c' { a a a2 a s16_" " } @end lilypond A @rglos{sharp} (@texisharp{}) is made by adding @samp{is}, a @rglos{flat} (@texiflat{}) by adding @samp{es}. As you would expect, a @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is made by adding @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}: @example cis1 ees fisis aeses @end example @lilypond[notime] \property Score.timing = ##f \transpose c c' { cis1 ees fisis aeses s16_" " } @end lilypond Add a dot @samp{.} after the duration to get a @rglos{dotted note}: @example a2. a4 a8. a16 @end example @lilypond[notime] \property Score.timing = ##f \transpose c c' { a2. a4 a8. a16 s16_" " } @end lilypond The @rglos{meter} (or @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the @code{\time} command: @example \time 3/4 \time 6/8 \time 4/4 @end example @c a clef here may lead to confusion @lilypond \property Staff.Clef \set #'transparent = ##t \time 3/4 s4_" " \time 6/8 s4_" " \time 4/4 s16_" " @end lilypond The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command: @c what is more common name treble or violin? @c in Dutch, its violin. @c in English its definitely treble. @example \clef treble \clef bass \clef alto \clef tenor @end example @lilypond[notime] \property Score.timing = ##f \clef violin s4_" " \clef bass s4_" " \clef alto s4_" " \clef tenor s16_" " @end lilypond When you enter these commands in a file, you must to enclose them in @code{\notes @{@dots{}@}}. This lets LilyPond know that music (and not @rglos{lyrics}, for example) follows: @example \notes @{ \time 3/4 \clef bass c2 e4 g2. f4 e d c2. @} @end example Now the piece of music is almost ready to be printed. The final step is to combine the music with a printing command. The printing command is the so-called @code{\paper} block. Later on you will see that the @code{\paper} block is used to customize printing specifics. The music and the @code{\paper} block are combined by enclosing them in @code{\score @{ ... @}}. This is what a full LilyPond source file looks like: @example \score @{ \notes @{ \time 3/4 \clef bass c2 e4 g2. f4 e d c2. @} \paper @{ @} @} @end example @lilypond[noindent] \score { \notes { \time 3/4 \clef bass c2 e4 g2. f4 e d c2. } \paper { linewidth = 55 * \staffspace } } @end lilypond @node Running LilyPond @section Running LilyPond In the last section we explained what kind of things you could enter in a lilypond file. In this section we explain how to run LilyPond and how to view or print the output. If you have not used LilyPond before, want to test your setup of LilyPond, or want to run an example file yourself, read this section. The instructions that follow are for running LilyPond on Unix-like systems. Some additional instructions for running LilyPond on Windows are given at the end of this section. Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor. For example, you could open an xterm and execute @code{joe}. In your text editor, enter the following input and save the file as @file{test.ly}: @quotation @example \score @{ \notes @{ c'4 e' g' @} @} @end example @end quotation @cindex ly2dvi @c now this is weird, running ly2dvi to run LilyPond @c (therefore name change proposal) LilyPond is the program that computes the sheet music. All other things, such as adding titles, page breaking and other page layout, are done by a small wrapper program called @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} calls lilypond to render the music, and then adds the titling and page layout instructions. To process @file{test.ly} with @code{ly2dvi}, proceed as follows: @quotation @example ly2dvi -P test.ly @end example @end quotation You will see the following on your screen: @quotation @example GNU LilyPond 1.6.0 Now processing: `/home/fred/ly/test.ly' Parsing... Interpreting music...[1] @emph{ ... more interesting stuff ... } PS output to `test.ps'... DVI output to `test.dvi'... @end example @end quotation @cindex DVI file @cindex Viewing music @cindex xdvi The results of the ly2dvi run are two files, @file{test.dvi} and @file{test.ps}. The PS file (@file{test.ps}) is the one you can print. You can view the PS file using the program ghostview. If a version of ghostview is installed on your system, one of these commands will produce a window with some music notation on your screen: @c eeek @quotation @example gv test.ps ghostview test.ps ggv test.ps kghostview test.ps @end example @end quotation If the music on your screen looks good, you can print it by clicking File/Print inside ghostview. The DVI file (@file{test.dvi}) contains the same sheet music in a different format. DVI files are more easily processed by the computer, so viewing them usually is quicker. You can run @code{xdvi test.dvi} or @code{kdvi test.dvi} to view the DVI file. In Xdvi, the mouse burtons activate magnifying glasses. Unfortunately, variable symbols (such as beams and slurs) are not displayed in the magnifying glasses. If your DVI viewer does not have a "Print" button, you can print the file by executing @code{lpr test.ps}. @c volgende alinea schrappen? If your system does not support printing PostScript files, then you can install Ghostscript, a PostScript emulator. Refer to Ghostscript's website at @uref{http://www.ghostscript.com}. @cindex Ghostscript @cindex @code{lpr} @cindex Printing output @cindex PostScript @cindex PDF A final option is to use the popular PDF format. You can get a PDF file by running @code{ly2dvi --pdf test.ly}. With @code{--pdf} you will get DVI, PS and PDF files. Viewers for PS files also accept PDF files, but there are also many other applications for viewing PDF files. If you are familiar with @TeX{}, be warned: do not use other DVI drivers like @code{dvilj}. The @TeX{} coming out of LilyPond uses embedded PostScript code and will not render correctly if you use anything other than @code{dvips}. @cindex dvips @cindex dvilj @cindex DVI driver @unnumberedsubsec Windows users Windows users can start the terminal by clicking on the LilyPond or Cygwin icon. You can use any text editor (such as NotePad, Emacs or Vim) to edit the LilyPond file. If you install the Cygwin's @code{XFree86} X11 window system, @code{tetex-x11} and @code{ghostscript-x11} packages too, you can view the @code{dvi} output doing @code{xdvi test.dvi} as described above. If you have installed a PostScript/PDF viewer, such as @code{GSView} from @uref{http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost}, viewing the PS file can be done with: @quotation @example @code{gsview32 test.ps} @end example @end quotation You can also print from the command line by executing: @quotation @example @code{gsview32 /s test.ps} @end example @end quotation @strong{SUMMARY} To run LilyPond, input a text file, then run the command @code{ly2dvi} on that file. The resulting files are either DVI or PostScript, and can be viewed with @code{xdvi} (Unix) and ghostview (Unix and Windows) respectively. The following table summarizes the constructs that were discussed in the previous two sections. @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .4 @item @b{Syntax} @tab @b{Description} @tab @b{Example} @item @code{1 2 8 16} @tab durations @tab @lilypond[relative 1, noquote, notime] \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c1 c2 c8 c16 @end lilypond @item @code{. ..} @tab augmentation dots @tab @lilypond[relative 1, noquote, notime] \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c4. c4.. @end lilypond @item @code{c d e f g a b } @tab scale @tab @lilypond[relative 1, noquote, notime] \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c d e f g a b @end lilypond @item @code{\clef treble \clef bass } @tab clefs @tab @lilypond[noquote, notime] \clef treble s4_" " \clef bass s4_" " @end lilypond @item @code{\time 3/4 \time 4/4 } @tab time signature @tab @lilypond[noquote] \property Staff.Clef \set #'transparent = ##t \time 3/4 s4_" " \time 4/4 s16_" " @end lilypond @end multitable @node More basics @section More basics We continue with the introduction of the remaining musical constructs. Normal rests are entered just like notes with the name ``@code{r}'': @quotation @example r2 r4 r8 r16 @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff r2 r4 r8 r16 s16_" " @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @c Tim wants to move this quotes example just before the: quotes-don't-work @c score, but we'd need to remove quotes from the other two (key and @c tie) examples... @c better to have this just before the `octaves are bad' snipped @c but we'd need to remove the ', from \key and tie To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote @code{'} (apostrophe) to the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a ``low quote'' @code{,} (a comma). Middle C is @code{c'}: @quotation @example c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c, @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c, @end lilypond @end quotation @separate A tie is created by adding a tilde ``@code{~}'' to the first note being tied. @quotation @lilypond[fragment,verbatim] g'4-~ g' a'2-~ a'4 @end lilypond @end quotation @separate A tie is different from a slur. A tie simply makes the first note sound longer, and can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the articulations of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties are also nested in practice: @lilypond[fragment, relative=1] c2-~-( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2-) @end lilypond The key signature is set with the command ``@code{\key}''. One caution word of caution: you need to specify whether the key is @code{\major} or @code{\minor}. @quotation @example \key d \major g'1 \key c \minor g' @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \key d \major g'1 \key c \minor g' @end lilypond @end quotation @c bit on the long/complex/scary taste @c cheating a bit: two lines makes for a friendlier look This example shows notes, ties, octave marks, and rests in action. @quotation @example \score @{ \notes @{ \time 4/4 \key d \minor \clef violin r4 r8 d''8 cis''4 e'' d''8 a'4.-~ a' b'8 cis''4 cis''8 cis'' bis'4 d''8 cis''-~ cis''2 r2 @} \paper @{ @} @} @end example @lilypond \score { \notes { \time 4/4 \clef violin \key d \minor r4 r8 d''8 cis''4 e'' d''8 a'4.-~ a' b'8 cis''4 cis''8 cis'' bis'4 d''8 cis''-~ cis''2 r2 } \paper { linewidth = 50*\staffspace } } @end lilypond @end quotation @c accidentals... There are some interesting points to note in this example. Accidentals (sharps and flats) don't have to be marked explicitly: you just enter the note name, and LilyPond determines whether or not to print an accidental. Bar lines and beams are drawn automatically. LilyPond calculates line breaks for you; it doesn't matter where you make new lines in the source file. Finally, the order of time, key and clef changes is not relevant: lilypond will use standard notation conventions for ordering these items. The example also indicates that a piece of music written in a high register needs lots of quotes. This makes the input less readable, and is also a potential source of errors. The solution is to use ``relative octave'' mode. In practice, this is the most convenient way to copy existing music. To use relative mode, add @code{\relative} before the piece of music. You must also give a note from which relative starts, in this case @code{c''}. If you don't use octavation quotes (ie don't add ' or , after a note), relative mode chooses the note that is closest to the previous one. Since most music has small intervals, you can write quite a lot in relative mode without using octavation quotes. @c don't use commas or quotes in this sentence For example: @code{c f} goes up; @code{c g} goes down: @quotation @example \relative c'' @{ c f c g c @} @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \relative c'' { c f c g c } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @c needed better, maybe even redundant explanation @c added another example below. @c grappig: Pa vond het heel logies, en slim toen-i eenmaal begreep. @c in eerste instantie drong het `relative' niet door zonder extra uitleg. You can make larger intervals by adding octavation quotes. Note that quotes or commas do not determine the absolute height of a note; the height of a note is relative to the previous one. @c don't use commas or quotes in this sentence For example: @code{c f,} goes down; @code{f, f} are both the same; @code{c' c} are the same; and @code{c g'} goes up: @quotation @example \relative c'' @{ c f, f c' c g' c, @} @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \relative c'' { c f, f c' c g' c, } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Here's an example of the difference between relative mode and ``normal'' (non-relative) mode: @quotation @example \relative a @{ \clef bass a d a e d c' d' @} @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \relative a { \clef bass a d a e d c' d' } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @quotation @example \clef bass a d a e d c' d' @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \clef bass a d a e d c' d' @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @strong{SUMMARY} The following table summarizes the syntax learned so far in this section. @c Is it possible to avoid page breaks directly after the @c table head? /Mats @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .4 @item @b{Syntax} @tab @b{Description} @tab @b{Example} @item @code{r4 r8} @tab rest @tab @lilypond[relative 1, noquote, notime] \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff r4 r8 @end lilypond @item @code{~} @tab tie @tab @lilypond[relative 1, noquote, notime] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff d ~ d @end lilypond @item @code{\key es \major } @tab key signature @tab @lilypond[noquote, notime] \clef treble \key es \major s4 @end lilypond @item @var{note}@code{'} @tab raise octave @tab @lilypond[relative 1, noquote, notime] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff a a' @end lilypond @item @var{note}@code{,} @tab lower octave @tab @lilypond[relative 1, noquote, notime] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c c, @end lilypond @end multitable A slur is drawn across many notes, and indicates bound articulation (legato). The starting note and ending note are marked with a ``@code{(}'' and a ``@code{)}'' respectively: @quotation @lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim] d4-( c16-)-( cis d e c cis d e-)-( d4-) @end lilypond @end quotation @separate If you need two slurs at the same time (one for articulation, one for phrasing), you can also make a phrasing slur with @code{\(} and @code{\)}. @c lousy example @c ? --hwn @c fragment of 1st hrn in Adams' The Chairman Dances, with creative @c chromatic thing pasted in front. (admittedly the original doesn't @c have a phrasing slur. The problem is that we don't want the slur @c and the Phrasing slur to collide. We're trying to make a good @c impression here. @quotation @lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim] a8-(-\( ais b c-) cis2 b'2 a4 cis, c-\) @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Beams are drawn automatically, but if you don't like the choices, you can enter beams by hand. Mark the first note to be beamed with @code{[} and the last one with @code{]}: @quotation @lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim] a8-[ ais-] d-[ es r d-] @end lilypond @end quotation @separate To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a staff is marked by adding @code{\context Staff} before it. These @code{Staff}'s are then grouped inside @code{<} and @code{>}, as is demonstrated here: @quotation @lilypond[fragment,verbatim] < \context Staff = staffA { \clef violin c'' } \context Staff = staffB { \clef bass c } > @end lilypond @end quotation In this example, @code{staffA} and @code{staffB} are names that are given to the staves. It doesn't matter what names you give, as long as each staff has a different name. If you give them the same name, LilyPond will assume that you only want one staff, and will but both pieces of music on the same staff. @separate We can now typeset a melody with two staves: @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,singleline] \score { \notes < \context Staff = staffA { \time 3/4 \clef violin \relative c'' { e2-( d4 c2 b4 a8-[ a-] b-[ b-] g-[ g-] a2.-) } } \context Staff = staffB { \clef bass c2 e4 g2. f4 e d c2. } > \paper {} } @end lilypond @end quotation Notice that the time signature is specified in one melody staff only (the top staff), but is printed on both. LilyPond knows that the time signature should be the same for all staves. @separate Common accents can be added to a note using @code{-.}, @code{--}, @code{->}: @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,relative 1] c-. c-- c-> @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings to the note: @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,relative 1] c-\ff c-\mf @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}. The command @code{\!} finishes a crescendo on the note it is attached to. @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,relative 1] c2-\< c2-\!-\ff c2-\> c2-\! @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Chords can be made by surrounding notes with @code{<<} and @code{>>}: @quotation @lilypond[relative 0, fragment,verbatim] r4 <>4 <>8 @end lilypond @end quotation @separate You can combine beams and ties with chords. Beam and tie markings must be placed outside the chord markers: @quotation @lilypond[relative 0, fragment,verbatim] r4 <>8-[ <>-]-~ <> @end lilypond @end quotation @ignore When you want to combine chords with slurs and dynamics, technical detail crops up: you have type these commands next to the notes, which means that they have to be inside the @code{< >}. Don't get confused by the chord @code{< >} and the dynamic @code{\< \>}! @end ignore @quotation @example r4 <>8-\>-( <> <> <>8-\!-\) @end example @lilypond[relative 0, fragment] \slurUp r4 <>8-\>-( <> <> <>8-\!-\) @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @strong{SUMMARY} @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .4 @item @b{Syntax} @tab @b{Description} @tab @b{Example} @item @code{( )} @tab slur @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c-( d e-) @end lilypond @item @code{\( \)} @tab phrasing slur @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c-\( c-( d-) e-\) @end lilypond @item @code{[ ]} @tab beam @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff a8-[ b-] @end lilypond @item @code{< \context Staff ... >} @tab more staffs @tab @lilypond[fragment] < \context Staff = SA { c'1 } \context Staff = SB { c'1 } > @end lilypond @item @code{-> -.} @tab articulations @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c-> c-. @end lilypond @item @code{-\mf -\sfz} @tab dynamics @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c-\mf c-\sfz @end lilypond @item @code{\< \!} @tab crescendo @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff a\< a \!a @end lilypond @item @code{\> \!} @tab decrescendo @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff a-\> a a-\! @end lilypond @item @code{<< >>} @tab chord @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] <> @end lilypond @end multitable Now you know the basic ingredients of a music file, so this is the right moment to try your at hand at doing it yourself: try typing some simple examples, and experiment a little. When you're comfortable with the basics, you might want to read the rest of this chapter. It continues in tutorial-style, but it is much more in-depth, dealing with more advanced topics such as lyrics, chords, orchestral scores and parts, fine tuning of output, polyphonic music, and integrating text and music. @node Printing lyrics @section Printing lyrics @cindex lyrics In this section we shall explain how to typeset the following fragment of The Free Software Song: @lilypond[singleline] \score { \notes { \addlyrics \notes \relative c' { \time 7/4 d'2 c4 b16-( a g a b a b c-) a2 b2 c4 b8-( a16 g a4-) g2 } \context Lyrics \lyrics { Join us now __ and share the soft -- ware; } } \paper { linewidth = -1. } } @end lilypond @cindex lyric mode @cindex @code{\lyrics} To print lyrics, you must enter them and then instruct lilypond to print the lyrics. You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}. The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text, punctuation, and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce special symbols. Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes: @code{"He could" not} or by using an underscore without quotes: @code{He_could not}. All unquoted underscores are converted to spaces. These are the lyrics for the free software song: @example \lyrics @{ Join us now __ and share the soft -- ware; @} @end example As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will create an extender, which is a line that extends over the entire duration of the lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric, so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}). You can use ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e. @example soft- ware @end example but then the hyphen will be attached to the end of the first syllable. If you want them centered between syllables you can use the special `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. The hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables. Normally the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads. Note heads alone make no sense, so they need surrounding information: a key signature, a clef, staff lines, etc. They need @emph{context}. In LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called `interpretation contexts'. Interpretation contexts exist for generating notation (`notation context') and for generating sound (`performance context'). These objects only exist while LilyPond is executing. When LilyPond interprets music, it will create a Staff context. We don't want that default here, because we want lyric. The command @example \context Lyrics @end example explicitly creates an interpretation context of @code{Lyrics} type to interpret the song text that we entered. The melody of the song doesn't offer anything new: @example \notes \relative c' @{ \time 7/4 d'2 c4 b16-( a g a b a b c-) a2 b2 c4 b8-( a16 g a4-) g2 @} @end example Both can be combined with the @code{\addlyrics}: @example \addlyrics \notes \relative c' @dots{} \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{} @end example The lyrics are also music expressions, similar to notes. Each syllable of the lyrics is put under a note of the melody. The complete file is listed here: @example \score @{ \notes @{ \addlyrics \notes \relative c' @{ \time 7/4 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 @} \context Lyrics \lyrics @{ Join us now __ and share the soft -- ware; @} @} \paper @{ linewidth = -1. @} @} @end example @node A melody with chords @section A melody with chords In this section we show how to typeset a melody with chord accompaniment. This file is included as @file{input/tutorial/flowing.ly}. @example \include "paper16.ly" melody = \notes \relative c' @{ \partial 8 \key c \minor g8 | c4 c8 d es-[ -( d-]-) c4 | f4 f8 g es-[-( d-)-] c g | c4 c8 d es-[ -( d-]-) c4 | d4 es8 d c4. \bar "|." @} accompaniment =\chords @{ r8 c2:3- f:3-.7 d:min es4 c8:min r8 c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min @} \score @{ \simultaneous @{ %\accompaniment \context ChordNames \accompaniment \context Staff = mel @{ \melody @} @} \midi @{ \tempo 4=72 @} \paper @{ linewidth = 10.0\cm @} @} @end example The result would look this. @lilypond[center] \include "paper16.ly" melody = \notes \relative c' { \partial 8 \key c \minor g8 | c4 c8 d es-[ -( d-)-] c4 | f4 f8 g es-(-[ d-)-] c g | c4 c8 d es-(-[ d-]-) c4 | d4 es8 d c4. \bar "|." } accompaniment =\chords { r8 c2:3- f:3-.7 d:min es4 c8:min r8 c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min } \score { \simultaneous { %\accompaniment \context ChordNames \accompaniment \context Staff = mel { \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \melody } } \midi { \tempo 4=72 } \paper { linewidth = 10.0\cm } } @end lilypond We will dissect this file line by line. @separate @example \include "paper16.ly" @end example Smaller size (suitable for inclusion in a book). @separate @example melody = \notes \relative c' @{ @end example The structure of the file will be the same as the previous one: a @code{\score} block with music in it. To keep things readable, we will give different names to the different parts of music, and use the names to construct the music within the score block. @separate @example \partial 8 @end example @cindex @code{\partial} @cindex anacrusis The piece starts with an anacrusis (or ``pickup'') of one eighth. @separate @separate @example c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | f4 f8 g [es() d] c g | c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | d4 es8 d c4. \bar "|." @end example @cindex manual beaming @cindex automatic beaming, turning off We use explicit beaming. Since this is a song, we turn automatic beams off and use explicit beaming where needed. @separate @example @} @end example This ends the definition of @code{melody}. @separate @example text = \lyrics @{ @end example @cindex lyrics @cindex identifier assignment @cindex syllables, entering This defines the lyrics, similar to what we have seen before. @separate @example accompaniment =\chords @{ @end example @cindex chords @cindex mode, chords We'll put chords over the music. To enter them, we use a special mode analogous to @code{\lyrics} and @code{\notes} mode, where you can give the names of the chords you want instead of listing the notes comprising the chord. @separate @example r8 @end example There is no accompaniment during the anacrusis. @separate @example c2:3- @end example @cindex tonic @cindex chord modifier @cindex modifier, chord This is a c minor chord, lasting for a half note. Chords are entered using the tonic. Notes can be changed to create different chords. In this case, a lowered third is used (making a C major chord into a C minor chord). The code for this is @code{3-}. @separate @example f:3-.7 @end example Similarly, @code{7} modifies (adds) a seventh, which is small by default to create the @code{f a c es} chord. Multiple modifiers must be separated by dots. @separate @example d:min es4 c8:min r8 @end example Some modifiers have predefined names, e.g. @code{min} is the same as @code{3-}, so @code{d-min} is a minor @code{d} chord. @separate @example c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min @} @end example @cindex named modifier A named modifier @code{min} and a normal modifier @code{7} do not have to be separated by a dot. Tones from a chord are removed with chord subtractions. Subtractions are started with a caret, and they are also separated by dots. In this example, @code{g:7^3.5} produces a minor seventh (a G7 chord without the third or the fifth). The brace ends the sequential music. @separate @example \score @{ \simultaneous @{ @end example We assemble the music in the @code{\score} block. Melody, lyrics and accompaniment have to sound at the same time, so they should be @code{\simultaneous}. @cindex @code{\simultaneous} @separate @example %\accompaniment @end example Chord mode generates notes grouped in @code{\simultaneous} music. If you remove the comment sign, you can see the chords in normal notation: they will be printed as note heads on a separate staff. To print them as chords names, they have to be interpreted as being chords, not notes. This is done with the following command: @separate @example \context ChordNames \accompaniment @end example @cindex context @cindex interpretation context @cindex notation context Normally the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads. Note heads alone make no sense, so they need surrounding information: a key signature, a clef, staff lines, etc. They need @emph{context}. In LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called `interpretation contexts'. Interpretation contexts exist for generating notation (`notation context') and for generating sound (`performance context'). These objects only exist while LilyPond is executing. When LilyPond interprets music, it will create a Staff context. If the @code{%} sign in the previous line were removed, you could see that mechanism in action. We don't want that default here, because we want chord names. The command above explicitly creates an interpretation context of @code{ChordNames} type to interpret the music @code{\accompaniment}. @separate @example \context Staff = mel @{ @end example We place the melody on a staff called @code{mel}. We give it a name to differentiate it from the one that would contain note heads for the chords, if you would remove the comment before the ``note heads'' version of the accompaniment. By giving this staff a name, it is forced to be different. @separate @example \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f @end example @cindex \property @cindex context variables @cindex setting context variables An interpretation context has variables, called properties, that tune its behavior. One of the variables is @code{autoBeaming}. Setting this @code{Staff}'s property to @code{##f}, which is the boolean value @var{false}, turns the automatic beaming mechanism off for the current staff. @separate @example \melody @} @end example Finally, we put the melody on the current staff. Note that the @code{\property} directives and @code{\melody} are grouped in sequential music, so the property settings are done before the melody is processed. @separate @example \midi @{ \tempo 4=72@} @end example MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for connecting and recording digital instruments. So a MIDI file is like a tape recording of an instrument. The @code{\midi} block makes the music go to a MIDI file, so you can listen to the music you entered. It is great for checking the music. Whenever you hear something weird, you probably hear a typing error. Syntactically, @code{\midi} is similar to @code{\paper @{ @}}, since it also specifies an output method. You can specify the tempo using the @code{\tempo} command, in this case the tempo of quarter notes is set to 72 beats per minute. @separate @example \paper @{ linewidth = 10.0\cm @} @end example We also want notation output. The linewidth is short so that the piece will be set in two lines. @node More stanzas @section More stanzas @cindex phrasing If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody. We show how you can do this by showing how you could print a frivolous fragment of a fictional Sesame Street duet. @lilypond[singleline,verbatim] \score { \addlyrics \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2. } \lyrics \context Lyrics < \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" { \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert" Hi, my name is bert. } \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" { \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie" Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. } > } @end lilypond To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash. In the following example, the Voice identity is @code{duet}, @example \context Voice = duet @{ \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2. @} @end example and the identities of the LyricsVoices are @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}. @example \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{ Hi, my name is bert. @} \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{ Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @} @end example We add the names of the singers. This can be done by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. Note that you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode. @example \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert" @dots{} \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie" @end example The convention for naming @code{LyricsVoice} and @code{Voice} must also be used to get melismata on rests correct. @node More movements @section More movements The program @code{lilypond} only produces sheet music and does not create titles, subtitles, or print the composer's name. To do that, you need to use @code{ly2dvi}, which comes with LilyPond. @code{ly2dvi} creates the title, then calls @code{lilypond} to format the sheet music. In this section, we show you how to create titles like this: @center @strong{Two miniatures} @flushright Opus 1. @end flushright @flushleft @var{Up} @end flushleft @lilypond \score { \notes { c'4 d'4 } \paper { linewidth = -1.0 } } @end lilypond @flushright Opus 2. @end flushright @flushleft @var{Down} @end flushleft @lilypond \score { \notes { d'4 c'4 } \paper { linewidth = -1.0 } } @end lilypond For example, consider the following file (@file{miniatures.ly}) @example \version "1.5.72" \header @{ title = "Two miniatures" composer = "F. Bar Baz" tagline = "small is beautiful" @} \paper @{ linewidth = -1.0 @} %@{ Mental note: discuss Schenkerian analysis of these key pieces. %@} \score @{ \notes @{ c'4 d'4 @} \header @{ opus = "Opus 1." piece = "Up" @} @} \score @{ \notes @{ d'4 c'4 @} \header @{ opus = "Opus 2." piece = "Down" @} @} @end example The information for the global titling is in a so-called header block. The information in this block is not used by LilyPond, but it is passed into @code{ly2dvi}, which uses this information to print titles above the music. @cindex assignments @cindex identifier assignment the @code{\header} block contains assignments. In each assignment, a variable is set to a value. The header block for this file looks like this @cindex @code{\header} @example \header @{ title = "Two miniatures" composer = "F. Bar Baz" tagline = "small is beautiful" @} @end example When you process a file with ly2dvi, a signature line is printed at the bottom of the last page. This signature is produced from the @code{tagline} field of @code{\header}. The default "Lily was here, @var{version number}" is convenient for programmers: archiving the layouts of different versions allows programmers to compare the versions using old print-outs. @cindex Lily was here @cindex signature line @cindex tag line Many people find the default tagline (``Lily was here'') too droll. If that is the case, you can change @code{tagline} to something else, as shown above. @separate @example \paper @{ linewidth = -1.0 @} @end example A paper block at top level (i.e. not in a @code{\score} block) sets the default page layout. The following @code{\score} blocks don't have @code{\paper} sections, so the settings of this block are used. The variable @code{linewidth} normally sets the length of the systems on the page. However, a negative value has a special meaning. If @code{linewidth} is less than 0, no line breaks are inserted into the score, and the spacing is set to natural length: a short phrase takes up little space, a longer phrase takes more space, all on the same line. @example %@{ Mental note: discuss Schenkerian analysis of these key pieces. %@} @end example Mental notes to yourself can be put into comments. There are two types of comments. Line comments are introduced by @code{%}, and block comments are delimited by @code{%@{} and @code{%@}}. @separate @example \score @{ \notes @{ c'4 d'4 @} @end example In previous examples, most notes were specified in relative octaves (i.e. each note was put in the octave that is closest to its predecessor). Besides relative, there is also absolute octave specification, which you get when you don't include @code{\relative} in your input file. In this input mode, the middle C is denoted by @code{c'}. Going down, you get @code{c} @code{c,} @code{c,,} etc. Going up, you get @code{c''} @code{c'''} etc. When you're copying music from existing sheet music, relative octaves are probably the easiest to use: you have to do less typing, and errors are easily spotted. However, if you write LilyPond input directly, either by hand (i.e. composing) or by computer, absolute octaves may be easier to use. @separate @example \header @{ @end example The @code{\header} is normally at the top of the file, where it sets values for the rest of the file. If you want to typeset different pieces from one file (for example, if there are multiple movements, or if you're making an exercise book), you can put different @code{\score} blocks into the input file. @code{ly2dvi} will assemble all LilyPond output files into a big document. The contents of @code{\header} blocks specified within each score is used for the title of that movement. @separate @example opus = "Opus 1." piece = "Up" @} @end example For example, the Opus number is put at the right, and the "piece" string will be at the left. @example \version "1.5.72" \header @{ title = "Two miniatures" composer = "F. Bar Baz" tagline = "small is beautiful" @} \paper @{ linewidth = -1.0 @} \score @{ \notes @{ c'4 d'4 @} \header @{ opus = "Opus 1." piece = "Up" @} @} \score @{ \notes @{ d'4 c'4 @} \header @{ opus = "Opus 2." piece = "Down" @} @} @end example TODO: @example scoreA = \score @{ \deelA @} scoreB = \score @{ \deelA @} % \score @{ \scoreA @} \score @{ \scoreB @} @end example @separate @example \version "1.5.72" @end example Lilypond and its language are still under development, and occasionally details of the syntax are changed. The @code{version} fragment indicates which version of lilypond the input file was written for. When you compile this file, the version number will be checked and you will get a warning when the file is too old. This version number is also used by the @code{convert-ly} program (See @ref{Invoking convert-ly}), which can used to update the file to the latest lily version. @node A piano excerpt @section A piano excerpt Our eighth subject is a piece of piano music. The fragment in the input file is a piano reduction of the G major Sinfonia by Giovanni Battista Sammartini, composed around 1740. It's in the source package under the name @file{input/tutorial/sammartini.ly}. @lilypondfile[smallverbatim,noquote]{sammartini.ly} As you can see, this example features multiple voices on one staff. To make room for those voices, their notes should be stemmed in opposite directions. LilyPond includes the identifiers @code{\stemUp}, @code{\stemDown} along with some other commonly used formatting instructions, but to explain how it works, we wrote our own here. Of course, you should use predefined identifiers like these if possible: you will be less affected by changes between different versions of LilyPond. @separate @example viola = \notes \relative c' \context Voice = viola @{ @end example In this example you can see multiple parts on a staff. Each part is associated with one notation context. This notation context handles stems and dynamics (among other things). The type name of this context is @code{Voice}. For each part we have to make sure that there is precisely one @code{Voice} context, so we give it a unique name (`@code{viola}'). @separate @example <>4-\arpeggio @end example The delimiters @code{<<} and @code{>>} enclose the pitches of a chord. @code{\arpeggio} typesets an arpeggio sign (a wavy vertical line) before the chord. @cindex arpeggio @separate @example \voiceTwo @end example We want the viola to have stems down, and have all the other characteristics of a second voice. This is enforced using the @code{\voiceTwo} command: it inserts instructions that makes stem, ties, slurs, etc. go down. @separate @example g'8. b,16 @end example Relative octaves work a little differently with chords. The starting point for the note following a chord is the first note of the chord. So the @code{g} gets an octave up quote: it is a fifth above the starting note of the previous chord (the central C). @separate @example s1 s2. r4 @end example @code{s} is a spacer rest. It does not print anything, but it does have the duration of a rest. It is useful for filling up voices that temporarily don't play. In this case, the viola doesn't come until one and a half measure later. @separate @example oboes = \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = oboe @{ @end example Now comes a part for two oboes. They play homophonically, so we print the notes as one voice that makes chords. Again, we insure that these notes are indeed processed by precisely one context with @code{\context}. @separate @example \voiceOne s4 g8. b,16 c8 r <>8. <>16 @end example The oboes should have stems up to keep them from interfering with the staff-jumping bass figure. To do that, we use @code{\voiceOne}. @separate @example \grace <>-( <>4-) <>2 @end example @cindex @code{\grace} @cindex ornaments @cindex grace notes @code{\grace} introduces grace notes. It takes one argument, in this case a chord. A slur is introduced starting from the @code{\grace} ending on the following chord. @separate @example \times 2/3 @end example @cindex tuplet @cindex triplets Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so in this case the fraction is 2/3. @separate @example @{ <>8 <> <> @} @end example The piece of music to be `tripletted' is sequential music containing three chords. @separate @example < @end example At this point, the homophonic music splits into two rhythmically different parts. We can't use a sequence of chords to enter this, so we make a "chord of sequences" to do it. We start with the upper voice, which continues with upward stems: @separate @example @{ \times 2/3 @{ a8 g c @} c2 @} @end example @separate @example \\ @end example The easiest way to enter multiple voices is demonstrated here. Separate the components of the voice (single notes or entire sequences) with @code{\\} in a simultaneous music expression. The @code{\\} separators split first voice, second voice, third voice, and so on. As far as relative mode is concerned, the previous note is the @code{c'''2} of the upper voice, so we have to go an octave down for the @code{f}. @separate @example f,8 e e2 @} > @end example This ends the two-part section. @separate @example \stemBoth \grace <>8-( <>8.-\trill <>16 | @end example @cindex trill @cindex stemBoth @code{\stemBoth} ends the forced stem directions. From here, stems are positioned as if it were single part music. The bass has a little hoom-pah melody to demonstrate parts switching between staves. Since it is repetitive, we use repeats: @separate @example hoomPah = \repeat unfold 8 @end example @cindex unfolded @code{\repeat} The unfolded repeat prints the notes in its argument as if they were written out in full eight times. @separate @example \notes \transpose c' @{ @end example @cindex transposing @cindex relative mode and transposing Transposing can be done with @code{\transpose}, which takes two arguments. The first specifies what central C should be transposed to. The second is the to-be-transposed music. As you can see, in this case, the transposition has no effect, as central C stays at central C. The purpose of this no-op is to protect it from being interpreted as relative notes. Relative mode can not be used together with transposition, so @code{\relative} will leave the contents of @code{\hoomPah} alone. We can use it without having to worry about getting the motive in a wrong octave. Conversely, if you want to transpose a fragment of music entered with @code{\relative}, then you should make sure that @code{\transpose} comes before @code{\relative}. @separate @cindex staff switch, manual @cindex cross staff voice, manual @cindex @code{\translator} @example \translator Staff = down \stemUp c8 \translator Staff = up \stemDown c'8 @} @end example Voices can switch between staves. Here you see two staff switching commands. The first one moves to the lower staff, the second one to the lower one. If you set the stem directions explicitly (using the identifiers @code{\stemUp} and @code{\stemDown}, the notes can be beamed together (despite jumping between staffs). @separate @example bassvoices = \notes \relative c' @{ c4 g8. b,16 \autochange Staff \hoomPah \context Voice @end example @separate @example \translator Staff = down @end example @cindex staff switch @cindex cross staff voice We want the remaining part of this melody on the lower staff, so we do a manual staff switch here. @separate @example \context Voice = reallyLow @{\stemDown g2-~ | g4 c8 @} > @end example @cindex tie @cindex @code{~} After skipping some lines, we see @code{~}. This mark makes ties. Note that ties and slurs are different things. A tie can only connect two note heads of the same pitch, whereas a slur can connect many notes with one curve. @separate @example \context PianoStaff @end example A special context is needed to get cross staff beaming right. This context is called @code{PianoStaff}. @separate @example \context Staff = bottom < \time 2/2 \clef bass @end example The bottom staff must have a different clef. @separate @example indent = 0.0 @end example To make some more room on the line, the first (in this case the only) line is not indented. The line still looks very cramped, but that is due to the page layout of this document. @ignore [TODO: * font-size, multi-stanza. * Simple part combining in a Hymn @end ignore @node Fine tuning a piece @section Fine tuning a piece In this section we show some ways to fine tune the final output of a piece. We do so using a single measure of a moderately complex piano piece: a Brahms intermezzo (opus 119, no. 1). Both fragments (the tuned and the untuned versions) are in @file{input/tutorial/}. The code for the untuned example shows us some new things. @lilypondfile[verbatim]{brahms-original.ly} @cindex dynamics @cindex loudness @cindex forte @cindex crescendo @cindex @code{\<} @cindex @code{\!} Hairpin dynamics can be easily added to Lilypond scores. Beginning a crescendo is indicated with @code{\<} and ending a crescendo is indicated with @code{\!}. A decrescendo can be indicated with @code{\>} and @code{\!}. Absolute dynamics (sometimes called ``Letter dynamics'') can be entered using @code{\p}, @code{\mf}, etc. All these dynamics will apply to the whole chord where they are entered, but for syntactical reasons they must be attached to one of the notes of the chord. @cindex fingering instructions Fingering indications are entered with @code{-@var{N}}, where @var{N} is a digit. Now that we have the basic piece of music entered, we want to fine tune it so that we get something that resembles the original printed edition by Schott/Universal Edition: @lilypondfile{brahms-tweaked.ly} @cindex tuning graphical objects Fine tuning involves overriding the defaults of the printing system. We do this by setting variables which control how Lilypond prints symbols. Printed symbols are called graphical objects (often abbreviated to @emph{grob}). Each object is described by a bunch of settings. Every setting is a variable: it has a name and a value which you can change. These values determine the fonts, offsets, sub-routines to be called on the object, etc. The initial values of these settings are set in the Scheme file @file{scm/grob-description.scm}. @cindex slur attachments We start with the slur in the upper part, running from F sharp to A. In the printed edition, this slur runs from stem to stem; in our version, the slur begins at the note head of the F sharp. The following property setting forces all slurs to run from stem to stem (not from or to note heads!). @example \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem) @end example More precisely, this command modifies the definition of the @code{Slur} object in the current @code{Voice}. The variable @code{attachment} is set to the pair of symbols @code{'(stem . stem)}. Although this fixes the slur, it isn't very helpful for fine tuning in general: the lilypond back-end supports approximately 240 variables like @code{attachment}, each with their own meaning and own type (eg. number, symbol, list, etc). Besides slur, LilyPond has 80 different types of graphical objects, that may be created in 14 different context types besides Voice. @cindex internal documentation @cindex finding graphical objects @cindex graphical object descriptions The interesting information is how you can figure out which properties to tune for your own scores. To discover this, you must have a copy of the internals document. This is a set of HTML pages which should be included if you installed a binary distribution@footnote{You can also compile them by executing @code{make -C Documentation/user/ out/lilypond-internals.html} in the source package.}. These HTML pages are also available on the web: go to the lilypond website, click ``Documentation: Index'' on the side bar, look in the ``Information for uses'' section, and click on ``Documentation of internals''. You might want to bookmark either the HTML files on your disk, or the one on the web (the HTML on your hard drive will load much faster than the ones on the web!). One word of caution: the internals documentation is generated from the definitions that lily uses. For that reason, it is strongly tied to the version of LilyPond that you use. Before you proceed, please make sure that you are using the documentation that corresponds to the version of LilyPond that you are using. @c TODO: the quote is incorrect, although that shouldn't be a big @c problem for the reader. Suppose that you wanted to tune the behavior of the slur. The first step is to get some general information on slurs in lilypond. Turn to the index, and look up ``slur''. The section on slurs says @quotation The grob for this object is @internalsref{Slur}, generally in @internalsref{Voice} context. @end quotation So the graphical object for this object is called @code{Slur}, and slurs are created in the @code{Voice} context. If you are reading this tutorial in the HTML version, then you can simply click Slur, otherwise, you should look it up the internal documentation: click ``grob overview'' and select ``slur'' (the list is alphabetical). Now you get a list of all the properties that the slur object supports, along with their default values. Among the properties we find the @code{attachment} property with its default setting. The property documentation explains that the following setting will produce the desired effect: @example \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem) @end example If you ran the previous example, you have unknowingly already used this kind of command. The @file{ly/property-init.ly} contains the definition of @code{\stemUp}: @example stemUp = \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1 @end example @c this is a long section, and adding an extra space here helps to @c break it into smaller subsections and thus is easier to understand. @separate Next we want to move the fingering `3'. In the printed edition it is not above the stem, but a little lower and slightly left of the stem. From the user manual we find that the associated graphical object is called @code{Fingering}, but how do we know if we should use @code{Voice} or @code{Staff}? In many cases, @code{Voice} is a safe bet, but you can also deduce this information from the internals documentation: if you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering}, you will notice @example Fingering grobs are created by: Fingering_engraver @end example Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} will show you the documentation of the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and translating them to a @code{Fingering} object. Such a module is called an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver} says @example Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice and TabVoice @end example so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done using either @example \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{} @end example or @example \property TabVoice.Fingering \set @dots{} @end example Since the @code{TabVoice} is only used for tab notation, we see that the first guess @code{Voice} was indeed correct. @cindex setting object properties @cindex @code{extra-offset} For shifting the fingering, we use the property @code{extra-offset}. The following command manually adds an offset to the object. We move it a little to the left, and 1.8 staff space downwards. @example \property Voice.Fingering \set #'extra-offset = #'(-0.3 . -1.8) @end example The @code{extra-offset} is a low-level feature: it moves around objects in the printout; the formatting engine is completely oblivious to these offsets. The unit of these offsets are staff-spaces. The first number controls left-right movement; a positive number will move the object to the right. The second number controls up-down movement; a positive number will move it higher. @cindex reverting object properties @cindex undoing object properties We only want to offset a single object, so after the F-sharp we must undo the setting. The technical term is to revert the property. @example \property Voice.Fingering \revert #'extra-offset @end example @cindex property types @cindex translator properties @cindex grob properties @cindex music properties @separate There are three different types of variables in LilyPond, something which can be confusing at first (and for some people it stays confusing :). Variables such as @code{extra-offset} and @code{attachment} are called grob properties. They are not the same as translator properties, like @code{autoBeaming}. Finally, music expressions are internally stored using properties (so-called music properties). You will encounter music properties if you run Scheme functions on music using @code{\apply}. The second fingering instruction should be moved up a little to avoid a collision with the slur. This could be achieved with @code{extra-offset}, but in this case, a simpler mechanism also works. We insert an empty text between the 5 and the note. The empty text pushes the fingering instruction away: @example a^" "^#'(finger "5") @end example Lilypond tries to put fingering instructions as close to the notes as possible. To make sure that Lilypond doesn't do that, we disguise the fingering as text: @code{(finger "5")}. @separate Normally one would specify all dynamics in the same voice, so that dynamics (such as @b{f} and @b{p}) will be aligned with hairpins. But in this case, we don't want the decrescendo to be aligned with the piano sign. We achieve this by putting the dynamic markings in different voices. The crescendo should be above the upper staff. This can be forced by using the precooked command @example \dynamicsUp @end example However, if you do that the decrescendo will be too close to the upper voice and collide with the stems. Looking at the manual for dynamics, we notice that ``Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob.''. If we turn to the documentation of @code{DynamicLineSpanner}, we find that @code{DynamicLineSpanner} supports several so-called `interfaces'. This object not only puts dynamic objects next to the staff (@code{side-position-interface}), but it also groups dynamic objects (@code{axis-group-interface}), is considered a dynamic sign itself (@code{dynamic-interface}), and is an object. It has the standard @code{grob-interface} with all the variables that come with it. For the moment we are interested in side positioning: @quotation side-position-interface Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the support). In this case, the direction signifies where to put the victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?) @end quotation Between the object and its support (in this case the notes in the voice going down), there should be more space. This space is controlled by @code{padding}, so we increase it. @example \property Voice.DynamicLineSpanner \override #'padding = #5.0 @end example This command is almost like the command for setting slur attachments, but subtly different in its details. Grob properties can be manipulated with two commands: @code{\override} extends the variables with a setting, and @code{\revert} releases this setting. This has a certain theoretical appeal: the operations are simple and symmetric. But for practical use, it can be cumbersome. The commands act like parentheses: you should carefully balance the use of @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The @code{\set} command is more friendly: it first does a @code{\revert} followed by @code{\override}. @separate Brahms uses music notation is a slightly unorthodox way. Ties usually happen only within one voice. In this piece, the composer gladly produces ties that jump voices. We deal with this by faking these ties: whenever we need such a tie, we insert a notehead in a different voice, and blank the stem. This is done in the following snippet of code. @example \property Voice.Stem \set #'transparent = ##t d' @end example Blanking the stem should be done for only one object. One of the ways to achieve that, is by setting the property before a note. Reverting it afterwards is tedious, so for setting a property only once, we have the syntax @code{\once}: it reverts the property directly before proceeding to the next step in time. The @code{\once} keyword is added to @code{\property}. Finally, the last tie is forced up using @code{\tieUp}. @separate Here's the complete ``fine tuned'' version, which includes all the modifications we discussed in this section: @lilypondfile[verbatim]{brahms-tweaked.ly} @node An orchestral score @section An orchestral score @menu * The full score:: * Extracting an individual part:: @end menu Our next two examples demonstrate one way to create an orchestral score in LilyPond. When typesetting a piece for several instruments, you'll want to create a full score (for the conductor) along with several individual parts (for the players). LilyPond is well suited for this task. We will declare the music for each instrument individually, giving the music of each instrument its own name. These pieces of music are then combined in different @code{\score} blocks to produce different combinations of instruments (for example, one @code{\score} block may only include the cello part; another @code{\score} block may be for all the strings, and yet another @code{\score} block may be for all parts together). This orchestral score example consists of three input files. In the first file, @file{os-music.ly}, we define the music for all instruments. This file will be used for producing the score and the separate parts, but the file doesn't produce any sheet music itself. Other files reference this file by doing @code{\include "os-music.ly"}. @example % os-music.ly \header @{ title = "Zo, goed lieverd?" subtitle = "How's, this babe?" composer = "JCN" opus = "1" piece = "Laid back" @} global = @{ \time 2/4 \skip 2*4 \bar "|." @} Key = \notes \key as \major flautoI = \notes\relative c'' @{ f8 g f g f g f g bes as bes as bes as bes as @} flautoII = \notes\relative c'' @{ as8 bes as bes R1 d4 ~ d @} tromboI = \notes\relative c'' @{ c4. c8 c8 c4. es4 r as, r @} tromboII = \notes\relative c'' @{ as4. as8 as8 as4. R1*1/2 as4 es' @} timpani = \notes\relative c, @{ \times 2/3 @{ f4 f f @} \times 4/5 @{ as8 as as as as @} R1 @} corno = \notes\relative c' @{ bes4 d f, bes d f, bes d @} @end example We will not examine this example line by line, since you already know most of it. We'll examine a few lines which contain new elements. @separate @example global = @{ \time 2/4 \skip 2*4 \bar "|." @} @end example Declare setting to be used globally. The @code{\skip} command produces no output, but moves forward in time: in this case, the duration of a half note (@code{2}), and that four times (@code{*4}). This brings us to the end of the piece, and we can set the end bar. You can use @code{s} as a shortcut for @code{\skip} (the last line of this section would be @code{s2*4 \bar"|."}). @separate @example Key = \notes \key as \major @end example Declare the key signature of the piece and assign it to the identifier @var{Key}. Later on we'll use @code{\Key} for all staves except those for transposing instruments. @node The full score @subsection The full score The second file, @file{input/tutorial/os-score.ly}, reads the definitions of the first (@file{input/tutorial/os-music.ly}), and defines the @code{\score} block for the full conductor's score. @example % os-score.ly \include "os-music.ly" \include "paper13.ly" #(ly:set-point-and-click 'line-column) #(define text-flat '((font-relative-size . -2) (music "accidentals--1"))) \score @{ < \global \property Score.BarNumber \override #'padding = #3 \context StaffGroup = woodwind < \context Staff = flauti < \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" \property Staff.instrument = "2 Flauti" \property Staff.instr = "Fl." \Key \context Voice=one @{ \voiceOne \flautoI @} \context Voice=two @{ \voiceTwo \flautoII @} > > \context StaffGroup = timpani < \context Staff = timpani < \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"timpani" \property Staff.instrument = #'(lines "Timpani" "(C-G)") \property Staff.instr = #"Timp." \clef bass \Key \timpani > > \context StaffGroup = brass < \context Staff = trombe < \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"trumpet" \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "2 Trombe" "(C)") \property Staff.instr = #`(lines "Tbe." "(C)") \Key \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice \context Thread=one \tromboI \context Thread=two \tromboII > \context Staff = corni < \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"french horn" \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "Corno" (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")")) \property Staff.instr = #`(lines "Cor." (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")")) \property Staff.transposing = #3 \notes \key bes \major \context Voice=one \corno > > > \paper @{ indent = 15 * \staffspace linewidth = 55 * \staffspace textheight = 90 * \staffspace \translator@{ \HaraKiriStaffContext @} @} \midi @{ \tempo 4 = 75 @} @} @end example @center @strong{Zo, goed lieverd?} @sp 1 @center How's, this babe? @flushright Opus 1. @end flushright @flushleft @sc{Laid back} @end flushleft @lilypondfile{os-score.ly} @separate @example \include "os-music.ly" @end example First we need to include the music definitions we made in @file{os-music.ly}. @separate @example #(ly:set-point-and-click 'line-column) @end example This piece of Scheme code executes the function @code{ly:set-point-and-click} with the argument @code{line-column}. Editing input files can be complicated if you're working with large files: if you're digitizing existing music, you have to synchronize the .ly file, the sheet music on your lap and the sheet music on the screen. The point-and-click mechanism makes it easy to find the origin of an error in the LY file: when you view the file with Xdvi and click on a note, your editor will jump to the spot where that note was entered. For more information, see @ref{Point and click}. @separate @example #(define text-flat '((font-relative-size . -2) (music "accidentals--1"))) @end example To name the transposition of the french horn, we will need a piece of text with a flat sign. LilyPond has a mechanism for font selection and kerning called Scheme markup text (See @ref{Text markup}). The flat sign is taken from the music font, and its name is @code{accidentals--1} (The natural sign is called @code{accidentals-0}). The default font is too big for text, so we select a relative size of @code{-2}. @separate @example < \global @end example All staves are simultaneous and use the same global settings. @separate @example \property Score.BarNumber \override #'padding = #3 @end example LilyPond prints bar numbers at the start of each line, but unfortunately they end up a bit too close to the staff in this example. In LilyPond, a bar number is called @var{BarNumber}. BarNumber objects can be manipulated through their @var{side-position-interface}. One of the properties of a @var{side-position-interface} that can be tweaked is @var{padding}: the amount of extra space that is put between this and other objects. We set the padding to three staff spaces. You can find information on all these kind of properties in LilyPond's automatically generated documentation in @ifnottex @ref{ (lilypond-internals)lilypond-internals, LilyPond Internals} or in @ref{Fine tuning a piece}. @end ifnottex @iftex the online documentation or in the previous section of the tutorial. @end iftex @c REFERENCE MAO @separate @example \context StaffGroup = woodwind < \context Staff = flauti < @end example A new notation context: the @code{StaffGroup}. @code{StaffGroup} can hold one or more @code{Staff}'s, and will print a big bracket at the left of the score. This starts a new staff group for the woodwind section (just the flutes in this case). Immediately after that, we start the staff for the two flutes, who also play simultaneously. @separate @example \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" @end example Specify the instrument for MIDI output (see @ref{MIDI instrument names}). @separate @example \property Staff.instrument = "2 Flauti" \property Staff.instr = "Fl." @end example This defines the instrument names to be printed in the margin. @code{instrument} specifies the name for the first line of the score, @code{instr} is used for the rest of the score. @separate @example \Key @end example The flutes play in the default key. @separate @example \context Voice=one @{ \voiceOne \flautoI @} \context Voice=two @{ \voiceTwo \flautoII @} @end example Last come the actual flute parts. Remember that we're still in simultaneous mode. We name both voices differently, so that LilyPond will create two Voice contexts. The flute parts are simple, so we specify manually which voice is which: @code{\voiceOne} forces the direction of stems, beams, slurs and ties up, @code{\voiceTwo} sets directions down. @separate @example > > @end example Close the flutes staff and woodwind staff group. @separate @example \property Staff.instrument = #'(lines "Timpani" "(C-G)") @end example The timpani staff demonstrates a new piece of scheme markup, it sets two lines of text. @separate @example \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice \context Thread=one \tromboI \context Thread=two \tromboII @end example You have seen the notation contexts Staff and Voice, but here's a new one: Thread. One or more Threads can be part of a Voice. Thread takes care of note heads and rests; Voice combine note heads onto a stem. For the trumpets we use the automatic part combiner (see @ref{Automatic part combining}) to combine the two simultaneous trumpet parts onto the trumpet staff. Each trumpet gets its own Thread context, which must be named @code{one} and @code{two}). The part combiner makes these two threads share a Voice when they're similar, and splits the threads up when they're different. @separate @example \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "Corno" (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")")) @end example The french horn (``Corno'') has the most complex scheme markup name, made up of two lines of text. The second line has three elements (columns) -- the @code{(E}, the flat sign @code{text-flat} that we defined previously, and a final @code{")"}. Note that we use a backquote instead of an ordinary quote at the beginning of the Scheme expression to be able to access the @code{text-flat} identifier, `unquoting' it with a ``@code{,}''. @separate @example \property Staff.transposing = #3 @end example The french horn is to be tuned in E-flat, so we tell the MIDI back-end to transpose this staff by three steps. Note how we can choose different tunings for the text input, sheet music output and, and MIDI output, using @code{\transpose} and the MIDI Staff property @var{transposing}. @separate @example \notes \key bes \major @end example Since the horn is transposing, it's in a different key. @separate @example indent = 15 * \staffspace linewidth = 55 * \staffspace @end example We specify a big indent for the first line and a small linewidth for this tutorial. @separate Usually LilyPond's default setup of notation contexts (Thread, Voice, Staff, Staffgroup, Score) is just fine. But in this case we want a different type of Staff context. @example \translator@{ \HaraKiriStaffContext @} @end example In orchestral scores it often happens that one instrument only has rests during one line of the score. @code{HaraKiriStaffContext} can be used as a regular @code{StaffContext} drop-in and will take care of the automatic removing of empty staves -- so if the strings are the only instruments playing for a line, LilyPond will only print the string parts for that line of the score. This reduces the number of page turns (and the number of dead trees!) required in a score. @node Extracting an individual part @subsection Extracting an individual part The third file, @file{os-flute-2.ly} also reads the definitions of the first (@file{os-music.ly}), and defines the @code{\score} block for the second flute part. @example \include "os-music.ly" \include "paper16.ly" \score @{ \context Staff < \property Score.skipBars = ##t \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" \global \Key \flautoII > \header @{ instrument = "Flauto II" @} \paper @{ linewidth = 80 * \staffspace textheight = 200 * \staffspace @} \midi @{ \tempo 4 = 75 @} @} @end example @center @strong{Zo, goed lieverd?} @sp 1 @center How's, this babe? @center @emph{Flauto II} @flushright Opus 1. @end flushright @flushleft @sc{Laid back} @end flushleft @lilypondfile{os-flute-2.ly} Because we separated the music definitions from the @code{\score} instantiations, we can easily define a second score with the music of the second flute. This is the part for the second flute player. Of course, we would make separate parts for all individual instruments if we were preparing the score for an orchestra. @separate @example \flautoII @end example In this individual part the second flute has a whole staff for itself, so we don't want to force stem or tie directions. @separate @example \header @{ instrument = "Flauto II" @} @end example The @code{\header} definitions were also read from @file{os-music.ly}, but we need to set the instrument for this particular score. @separate @example \property Score.skipBars = ##t @end example In the conductor's full score, all bars with rests are printed, but for the individual parts, we want to print one multimeasure rest instead of many consecutive empty bars. LilyPond will do this if @code{Score.skipBars} is set to true (@code{##t}). @node Integrating text and music @section Integrating text and music @cindex La@TeX{}, music in @cindex HTML, music in @cindex Texinfo, music in Sometimes you might want to use music examples in a text that you are writing (for example a musicological treatise, a songbook, or (like us) the LilyPond manual). You can make such texts by hand, simply by importing a PostScript figure into your word processor. However, there is an automated procedure to reduce the amount of work. If you use HTML, La@TeX{}, or texinfo, you can mix text and LilyPond code. A script called @code{lilypond-book} will extract the music fragments, run LilyPond on them, and put back the resulting notation. This program is fully described in the chapter @ref{Integrating text and music with lilypond-book}. Here we show a small example. Since the example also contains explanatory text, we won't comment on the contents. @example \documentclass[a4paper]@{article@} \begin@{document@} In a lilypond-book document, you can freely mix music and text. For example: \begin@{lilypond@} \score @{ \notes \relative c' @{ c2 g'2 \times 2/3 @{ f8 e d @} c'2 g4 @} @} \end@{lilypond@} Notice that the music line length matches the margin settings of the document. If you have no \verb+\score+ block in the fragment, \texttt@{lilypond-book@} will supply one: \begin@{lilypond@} c'4 \end@{lilypond@} In the example you see here, two things happened: a \verb+\score+ block was added, and the line width was set to natural length. You can specify many more options using \LaTeX style options in brackets: \begin[verbatim,11pt,singleline, fragment,relative,intertext="hi there!"]@{lilypond@} c'4 f bes es \end@{lilypond@} \texttt@{verbatim@} prints the LilyPond code in addition to the graphical score, \texttt@{11pt@} selects the default music size, \texttt@{fragment@} adds a score block, \texttt@{relative@} uses relative mode for the fragment, and \texttt@{intertext@} specifies what to print between the \texttt@{verbatim@} code and the music. If you want to include large examples into the text, it may be more convenient to put the example in a separate file: \lilypondfile[printfilename]@{sammartini.ly@} The \texttt@{printfilename@} option adds the file name to the output. \end@{document@} @end example Under Unix, you can view the results as follows. @example $ cd input/tutorial $ mkdir -p out/ $ lilypond-book --outdir=out/ lilbook.tex lilypond-book (GNU LilyPond) 1.6.1 Reading `input/tutorial/lilbook.tex' Reading `input/tutorial/sammartini.ly' @var{lots of stuff deleted} Writing `out/lilbook.latex' $ cd out $ latex lilbook.latex @var{lots of stuff deleted} $ xdvi lilbook @end example Notice the @code{outdir} option to lilypond-book. Running lilypond-book and running latex creates a lot of temporary files, and you wouldn't want those to clutter up your working directory. Hence, we have them created in a separate subdirectory. The result looks more or less like this: @separate In a lilypond-book document, you can freely mix music and text. For example: @lilypond \score { \notes \relative c' { c2 g'2 \times 2/3 { f8 e d } c'2 g4 } \paper { linewidth = -1 } } @end lilypond Notice that the music line length matches the margin settings of the document. If you have no @code{\score} block in the fragment, @code{lilypond-book} will supply one: @lilypond c'4 @end lilypond In the example you see here, a number of things happened: a @code{\score} block was added, and the line width was set to natural length. You can specify many more options using La@TeX{} style options in brackets: @lilypond[verbatim,11pt,singleline, fragment,relative,intertext="hi there!"] c'4 f bes es @end lilypond @code{verbatim} also shows the LilyPond code, @code{11pt} selects the default music size, @code{fragment} adds a score block, @code{relative} uses relative mode for the fragment, and @code{intertext} specifies what to print between the @code{verbatim} code and the music. If you include large examples into the text, it may be more convenient to put the example in a separate file: @lilypondfile[printfilename,noquote]{sammartini.ly} The @code{printfilename} option adds the file name to the output. @node End of tutorial @section End of tutorial This is the end of the tutorial. If you read everything until this point (and understood everything!) then you're now an accomplished lilypond hacker. From here you should try fiddling with input files or making your own input files. Come back to the reference manual for more information if you get stuck! Don't forget to check out the @ifhtml @uref{../../../../input/template/out-www/template.html,templates}, @uref{../../../../input/test/out-www/test.html,examples} and @uref{../../../../input/regression/out-www/regression.html,feature tests}. @end ifhtml @ifnothtml templates, examples and feature tests. @end ifnothtml If you want to see real action LilyPond, head over to @uref{http://www.mutopiaproject.org}, which has many examples of classical music typeset with LilyPond.