@c -*-texinfo-*- @c TODO: LilyPond LilyPond LilyPond @node Tutorial @chapter Tutorial @html @end html @menu * First steps:: Music language of LilyPond * Cheat sheet:: * Running LilyPond:: Printing music * The first real tune:: The first real tune * Lyrics and chords:: Lyrics and chords * More movements :: Joining separate pieces of music * A piano excerpt:: Piano music * Fine tuning a piece:: * An orchestral score:: Conductor's score and individual parts * Other ways to run LilyPond:: Other ways to run LilyPond * Integrating text and music:: Integrating text and music * End of tutorial:: The end @end menu Operating lilypond is done through text files: to print a piece of music, you enter the music in a file. When you run lilypond, that file is read, and after some computations, the program produces a file containing the sheet music that you can print or view. This tutorial starts with a small introduction to the LilyPond music language. After this first contact, we will show you how to run LilyPond to produce printed output; you should then be able to create your first sheets of music. The tutorial continues with more and more complex examples. @c title? @node First steps @section First steps @c @node Music language of LilyPond @c @section Music language of LilyPond In this section, we show how to make small, very simple pieces of music in LilyPond. If you have not seen LilyPond input files before, this section is for you. The contents of this section are summarized in the Cheat Sheet (See @ref{Cheat sheet}). You get a simple note by typing its note name, from @code{a} through @code{g}. So if you enter @quotation @example c d e f g a b @end example @end quotation then the result looks like this: @quotation @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \transpose c'' { c d e f g a b } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate We continue showing LilyPond input like we did previously: first a snippet of input, then the resulting output. The length of a note is specified by adding a number, ``@code{1}'' for a whole note, ``@code{2}'' for a half note, and so on: @quotation @example a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 @end example @c missing clef seems to raise more questions than actual pitch of notes, @c as these are snippets anyway @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f %\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff \transpose c'' { a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 } s16_" " @end lilypond @end quotation @separate If you don't specify a duration, the previous one is used: @quotation @example a a a2 a @end example @c missing clef seems to raise more questions than actual pitch of notes, @c as these are snippets anyway @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff %\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff \transpose c'' { a a a2 a } s16_" " @end lilypond @end quotation @separate A sharp (@texisharp{}) is made by adding ``@code{is}'', a flat (@texiflat{}) by adding ``@code{es}'': @quotation @example cis1 ees fisis aeses @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \transpose c'' { cis1 ees fisis aeses } s16_" " @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Add a dot ``@code{.}'' after the duration to get a dotted note: @quotation @example a2. a4 a8. a16 @end example @c missing clef seems to raise more questions than actual pitch of notes, @c as these are snippets anyway @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t %\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff \transpose c'' { a2. a4 a8. a16 } s16_" " @end lilypond @end quotation @separate The meter (or time signature) can be set with the @code{\time} command: @quotation @example \time 3/4 \time 6/8 \time 4/4 @end example @c a clef here may lead to confusion @lilypond[fragment] \property Staff.Clef \set #'transparent = ##t \time 3/4 s4_" " \time 6/8 s4_" " \time 4/4 s16_" " @end lilypond @end quotation @separate The clef can be set using the ``@code{\clef}'' command: @c what is more common name treble or violin? @c in Dutch, its violin. @quotation @example \clef violin \clef bass \clef alto \clef tenor @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \clef violin s4_" " \clef bass s4_" " \clef alto s4_" " \clef tenor s16_" " @end lilypond @end quotation @separate From these commands and notes, a piece of music can be formed. A piece of music is made by enclosing it in ``@code{\notes @{ ... @}}''. LilyPond then knows that music follows (and not lyrics, for example): @quotation @example \notes @{ \time 3/4 \clef bass c2 e4 g2. f4 e d c2. @} @end example @end quotation @separate At this point, the piece of music is ready to be printed. This is done by combining the music with a printing command. The printing command is the so-called ``@code{\paper}'' block. You will see later that the \paper block is necessary to customize all kinds of printing specifics. The music and the \paper block are combined by enclosing them in ``@code{\score @{ ... @}}''. This is what a full LilyPond source file looks like: @quotation @example \score @{ \notes @{ \time 3/4 \clef bass c2 e4 g2. f4 e d c2. @} \paper @{ @} @} @end example @lilypond \score { \notes { \time 3/4 \clef bass c2 e4 g2. f4 e d c2. } \paper { linewidth = 60 * \staffspace } } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate We continue with the introduction of the remaining musical constructs. @c maybe legend here? Normal rests are entered just like notes with the name ``@code{r}'': @quotation @example r2 r4 r8 r16 @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff r2 r4 r8 r16 s16_" " @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @c Tim wants to move this quotes example just before the: quotes-don't-work @c score, but we'd need to remove quotes from the other two (key and @c tie) examples... @c better to have this just before the `octaves are bad' snipped @c but we'd need to remove the ', from \key and tie To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote @code{'} (apostrophe) to the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a ``low quote'' @code{,} (a comma). The central C is @code{c'}: @quotation @example c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c, @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c, @end lilypond @end quotation @separate A tie is created by entering a tilde ``@code{~}'' between the notes to be tied. A tie between two notes means that the second note must not be played separately, but just makes the first note sound longer: @quotation @lilypond[fragment,verbatim] g'4 ~ g' a'2 ~ a'4 @end lilypond @end quotation @separate The key signature is set with the command ``@code{\key}'': @quotation @example \key d \major g'1 \key c \minor g' @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \key d \major g'1 \key c \minor g' @end lilypond @end quotation @c bit on the long/complex/scary taste @c cheating a bit: two lines makes for a friendlier look This example shows notes, ties, octave marks, and rests in action. Don't worry about all the quotes. @quotation @example \score @{ \notes @{ \time 4/4 \clef violin \key d \minor r4 r8 d''8 cis''4 e'' d''8 a'4. ~ a' b'8 cis''4 cis''8 cis'' bis'4 d''8 cis'' ~ cis''2 r2 @} \paper @{ @} @} @end example @lilypond \score { \notes { \time 4/4 \clef violin \key d \minor r4 r8 d''8 cis''4 e'' d''8 a'4. ~ a' b'8 cis''4 cis''8 cis'' bis'4 d''8 cis'' ~ cis''2 r2 } \paper { linewidth = 50*\staffspace } } @end lilypond @end quotation @c accidentals... There are some interesting points to note in this example. Firstly, accidentals (sharps and flats) don't have to be marked explicitly: you just enter the note name, and LilyPond determines whether or not to print an accidental. Secondly, bar lines and beams are drawn automatically. Thirdly, LilyPond calculates line breaks for you; it doesn't matter where you make new lines in the source file. The example also indicates that a piece of music written in a high register needs lots of quotes. This makes the input less readable, and is therefore also a potential source of errors. @separate The solution is to use ``relative octave'' mode. In practice, most music is entered using this mode. To use relative mode, add @code{\relative} before the piece of music. You must also give a note from which relative starts, in this case @code{c''}. @c In relative octave mode, quotes are used to mark large jumps in the @c melody. Without any quotes or commas, the interval between a note and @c its predecessor is assumed to be a fourth or less. Quotes and commas @c add octaves in up and down direction. If you type no octaviation quotes, relative mode chooses the note that is closest to the previous one, which is often just the one you need. @c don't use commas or quotes in this sentence For example: @code{c f} goes up; @code{c g} goes down: @quotation @example \relative c'' @{ c f c g c @} @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \relative c'' { c f c g c } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @c needed better, maybe even redundant explanation @c grappig: Pa vond het heel logies, en slim toen-i eenmaal begreep. @c in eerste instantie drong het `relative' niet door zonder extra uitleg. You can make a large interval by adding octaviation quotes. Note that quotes or commas do not determine the absolute height of a note; the height of a note is relative to the previous one. @c don't use commas or quotes in this sentence For example: @code{c f,} goes down; @code{f, f} are both the same; @code{c c'} are the same; and @code{c g'} goes up: @quotation @example \relative c'' @{ c f, f c' c g' c, @} @end example @lilypond[fragment] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \relative c'' { c f, f c' c g' c, } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate A slur is drawn across many notes, and indicates bound articulation (legato). The starting note and ending note are marked with a ``@code{(}'' and a ``@code{)}'' respectively: @quotation @lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim] d4( )c16( cis d e c cis d )e( )d4 @end lilypond @end quotation @separate If you need two slurs at the same time (one for articulation, one for phrasing), you can also make a phrasing slur with @code{\(} and @code{\)}. @c lousy example @quotation @lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim] a8(\( ais b ) c cis2 b'2 a4 cis, \) c @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Beams are drawn automatically, but if you don't like the choices, you can enter beams by hand. Surround the notes to be grouped with @code{[} and @code{]}: @quotation @lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim] [a8 ais] [d es r d] @end lilypond @end quotation @separate To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a staff is marked by adding @code{\context Staff} before it. These @code{Staff}'s can be grouped inside @code{<} and @code{>}, as is demonstrated here: @quotation @lilypond[fragment,verbatim] < \context Staff = staffA { \clef violin c'' } \context Staff = staffB { \clef bass c } > @end lilypond @end quotation In this example, @code{staffA} and @code{staffB} are names that are given to the staves. For now, it doesn't matter what names you give, as long as each staff has a unique name. @separate We can typeset a melody with two staves now: @quotation @lilypond[verbatim] \score { \notes < \context Staff = staffA { \time 3/4 \clef violin \relative c'' { e2 ( d4 c2 b4 [a8 a] [b b] [g g] )a2. } } \context Staff = staffB { \clef bass c2 e4 g2. f4 e d c2. } > \paper {} } @end lilypond @end quotation Notice that the time signature is specified in one melody staff only (the top staff), but is printed on both. LilyPond knows that the time signature should be the same for all staves. @separate Common accents can be added to a note using @code{-.}, @code{--}, @code{->}: @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,relative 1] c-. c-- c-> @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings to the note: @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,relative 1] c-\ff c-\mf @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Crescendi are started with the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}. The command @code{\!} finishes a crescendo on the following note. @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,relative 1] c2\< \!c2-\ff \>c2 \!c2 @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Chords can be made by surrounding notes with @code{<} and @code{>}: @quotation @lilypond[relative 0, fragment,verbatim] r4 @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @ignore @c te diepzinnig? @c hmm, te losjes, iig In general, @code{ < @var{stuff} > } is used when @var{stuff} all happens at the same time, like in chords, or (like in the two-staff example above) in a bunch of stacked staves. @end ignore Of course, you can combine beams and ties with chords. Notice that beam and tie markings must be placed outside the chord markers: @quotation @lilypond[relative 0, fragment,verbatim] r4 [ ] ~ @end lilypond @end quotation When you want to combine chords with slurs and dynamics, technical detail crops up: you have type these commands next to the notes, which means that they have to be inside the @code{< >}: @quotation @lilypond[relative 0, fragment,verbatim] r4 ( > < ) \! c8 f a> @end lilypond @end quotation @separate There is one golden rule that you should keep in mind when writing LilyPond input: @quotation @strong{DO NOT START A PIECE WITH A CHORD} @end quotation Of course, it is a allowed, but the result might not be what you expect: @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,singleline] \score { \notes } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate Of course, it is possible to typeset pieces that start with a chord, but you must make explicit that the notes of chord are to be put on the same staff, in the same voice. This is done by specifying @code{\context Staff} for the notes: @quotation @lilypond[verbatim,singleline] \score { \notes \context Voice } @end lilypond @end quotation @separate @ignore [TODO add some more here * lyrics, chords (?) * \header * identifiers? ] @end ignore This is the end of the simple tutorial. You know the basic ingredients of a music file, so this is the right moment to try your at hand at doing it yourself: try to type some simple examples, and experiment a little. When you're comfortable with the basics, then you might want to read the rest of this chapter. It also a manual in tutorial-style, but it is much more in-depth. It will also be very intimidating if you're not familiar with the basics. It deals with some of the more advanced features of LilyPond. Topics include lyrics, chords, orchestral scores and parts, fine tuning output, polyphonic music, and integrating text and music. @c refer to this section @node Cheat sheet @section Cheat sheet @c need texinfo-4.0a or later for this @c both Tim and my father came independently with a request for a @c `legend' like this. @c what should be in it? @quotation @multitable @columnfractions .20 .20 .40 @item @code{1 2 8 16} @tab durations @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] c1 c2 c8 c16 @end lilypond @item @code{. ..} @tab augmentation dots @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] c4. c4.. @end lilypond @item @code{c d e f g a b } @tab scale @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] c d e f g a b @end lilypond @item @code{es is} @tab flat/sharp @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 2] bes4 cis4 @end lilypond @item @code{-. -^ ->} @tab articulations (1) @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 2] c-. c-^ c-> @end lilypond @item @code{-\trill -\fermata} @tab articulations (2) @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 2] c-\trill c-\fermata @end lilypond @item @code{\time 3/4 \time 6/8 \time 4/4 } @tab time signature @tab @lilypond[fragment] \property Staff.Clef \set #'transparent = ##t \time 3/4 s4_" " \time 6/8 s4_" " \time 4/4 s16_" " @end lilypond @item @code{\clef treble \clef bass } @tab clefs @tab @lilypond[fragment] \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef treble s4_" " \clef bass s4_" " @end lilypond @item @code{\sfz \mf } @tab dynamics @tab @lilypond[fragment,relative 1] c\sfz c\mf @end lilypond @item @code{[ ]} @tab beam @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff [a8 b] @end lilypond @item @code{~} @tab tie @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff d ~ d @end lilypond @item @code{( )} @tab slur @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c( d )e @end lilypond @item @code{'} @tab raise octave @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff a a' @end lilypond @item @code{,} @tab lower octave @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff c c, @end lilypond @item @code{< >} @tab chord @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff \context Voice { } @end lilypond @item @code{\< \!} @tab crescendo @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff a\< a \!a @end lilypond @item @code{\> \!} @tab decrescendo @tab @lilypond[fragment, relative 1] \property Score.timing = ##f \property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.Clef = \turnOff a\> a \!a @end lilypond @end multitable @end quotation @node Running LilyPond @section Running LilyPond In the last section, we explained what kind of things you could enter in a lilypond file. In this section we explain how to run LilyPond, and how view or print the output. If you have not used LilyPond before, want to test your setup of LilyPond, or try to run an example file yourself, then read this section. The instructions that follow are for running LilyPond on Unix-like systems. Some additional instructions for running LilyPond on Windows are given at the end of this section. You begin with opening a terminal window, and start up a text editor. For example, open an xterm and execute @code{joe}. In your text editor, enter the following input, and save the file as @file{test.ly}: @quotation @example \score @{ \notes @{ c'4 e' g' @} @} @end example @end quotation @cindex ly2dvi @c now this is weird, running ly2dvi to run LilyPond @c (therefore name change proposal) LilyPond is the program that computes the sheet music. All other things, such as adding titles, page breaking and other page layout, are done by a small wrapper program called @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} calls lilypond to render the music, and then adds the titling and page layout instructions. To process @file{test.ly} with ly2dvi, proceed as follows: @quotation @example ly2dvi -P test.ly @end example @end quotation You will see the following on your screen: @quotation @example GNU LilyPond 1.4.0 Now processing: `/home/fred/ly/test.ly' Parsing... Interpreting music...[1] @emph{ ... more interesting stuff ... } PS output to `test.ps'... DVI output to `test.dvi'... @end example @end quotation @cindex DVI file @cindex Viewing music @cindex xdvi The results of the ly2dvi run are two files, @file{test.dvi} and @file{test.ps}. The PS file (@file{test.ps}) is the one you can print. You can view the PS file using the program ghostview. If a version of ghostview is installed on your system, one of these commands will produce a window with some music notation on your screen: @c eeek @quotation @example gv test.ps ghostview test.ps ggv test.ps kghostview test.ps @end example @end quotation If you are satisfied with the looks of the music displayed on your screen, you can print the PS file by clicking File/Print inside ghostview. The DVI file (@file{test.dvi}) contains the same sheet music in a different format. DVI files are more easily processed by the computer, so viewing them usually is quicker. Execute @code{xdvi test.dvi} to view the DVI file. If your DVI viewer does not have a "Print" button, you can print the file by executing @code{lpr test.ps}. @c volgende alinea schrappen? If you can't get the examples to print, then you should look into installing and configuring ghostscript. Refer to GhostScript's website at @uref{http://www.ghostscript.com}. @cindex GhostScript @cindex @code{lpr} @cindex Printing output @cindex PostScript @unnumberedsubsec Windows users Windows users start the terminal by clicking on the LilyPond or Cygwin icon. Notepad is sufficient for editing the LilyPond file. Viewing the PS file can be done with: @quotation @example @code{gsview32 test.ps} @end example @end quotation You can also print from the command line by executing: @quotation @example @code{gsview32 /s test.ps} @end example @end quotation @node The first real tune @section The first real tune The rest of this tutorial will demonstrate how to use Lilypond by presenting examples of input along with resulting output. We will use English terms for notation. In case you are not familiar with those, you may consult the glossary that is distributed with LilyPond. The examples discussed are included in the distribution, in the subdirectory @file{input/tutorial/}@footnote{When we refer to filenames, they are relative to the top directory of the source package. } To demonstrate what LilyPond input looks like, we start off with a full-fledged, yet simple example. It is a convoluted version of the famous minuet in J. S. Bach's @emph{Klavierb@"uchlein}. The file is included in the distribution as @file{minuet.ly}. @cindex Bach, Johann Sebastian @lilypond[verbatim] % all text after a percent sign is a comment % and is ignored by LilyPond \include "paper16.ly" \score { \notes \relative c'' \sequential { \time 3/4 \key g \major \repeat "volta" 2 { d4 g,8 a b c d4 g, g | e'4 c8 d e fis g4 g, g | c4 d8( )c b a( )b4 c8 b a g | a4 [b8 a] [g fis] g2. | } b'4 g8 a b g a4 d,8 e fis d | g4 e8 fis g d cis4 b8 cis a4 | a8-. b-. cis-. d-. e-. fis-. g4 fis e | fis a, r8 cis8 d2.-\fermata \bar "|." } \paper { % standard settings are too big and wide for a book indent = 1.0 \cm linewidth = 15.0 \cm } } @end lilypond We will analyse the input, line by line. @separate @example % all text after a percent sign is a comment % and is ignored by LilyPond @end example Percent signs introduce comments: everything after a percent sign is ignored. You can use this If you want to write down mental notes to yourself in a file, then you can enter preceded with a @code{%} sign. These lines are called comments. If you have long winded mental notes, you can make comments that span several lines by enclosing text in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}}. @cindex comment @cindex block comment @cindex line comment @separate @example \include "paper16.ly" @end example @cindex @code{\include} @cindex point, printer's @cindex staff size, setting @cindex font size, setting By default, LilyPond will typeset the music in a size such that each staff is 20 point (0.7 cm, or 0.27 inch) high. We want smaller output (16 point staff height), so we must import the settings for that size, which is done here. @separate @example \score @{ @end example Music is printed by combining a piece of music with directions for outputting it. This combination is formed in the @code{\score} block. @separate @example \notes @end example Prepare LilyPond for accepting notes. @cindex octaves, choosing @cindex pitch @separate @example \relative c'' @end example @cindex relative @c removed duplicate introduction to octave marks /MB @c Shorten even more? @c As we will see, each note is described by its note name, duration, @c octave and possibly a chromatic alteration. In this setup, the octave @c is indicated by using high quotes (@code{'}) and ``lowered quotes'' @c (commas: @code{,}). The central C is denoted by @code{c'}. The C one @c octave higher is @code{c''}. One and two octaves below the central C is @c denoted by @code{c} and @code{c,} respectively. Even though a piece of music often spans a range of several octaves, often melodies move in small intervals. Such melodies can be entered easily using @code{\relative}. In this ``relative octave mode'', octaves of notes without quotes are chosen such that a note is as close as possible (graphically, on the staff) to the preceding note. If you add a high-quote an extra octave is added. A lowered quote (a comma) will subtract an extra octave. Absolute starting pitch for this relative mode is given as the argument to @code{\relative}. In this case it is the @code{c''}, one octave above central C. @separate @example \sequential @{ @end example What follows is sequential music, i.e., @cindex sequential music notes that are to be played and printed after each other. @separate @example \time 3/4 @end example @cindex time signature, setting @cindex @code{\time} The @code{\time} command sets (or changes) the time signature of the current piece: a 3/4 sign is printed. This setting is also used to generate bar lines at the right spots. @separate @example \key g \major @end example @cindex key signature, setting @cindex @code{\key} Set (or change) the current key signature to G-major. Although in this example, the @code{\key} command happened to be entered after the @code{\time} command, in the output the time signature will be printed after the key signature; LilyPond knows about music typesetting conventions. @separate @example \repeat "volta" 2 @end example The following piece of music is played twice. The first argument indicates the type of repeat. In this case, @code{"volta"} means that prima volta/secunda volta brackets are used for the alternative endings---if there were any. A special notation for repeats allows you to get correct repeats in MIDI output. However, some extra trickery is needed to get this working, See @ref{Repeats and MIDI}. @separate @example @{ @end example The subject of the repeat is again sequential music. Since @code{\sequential} is such a common construct, a shorthand is provided: just leave off @code{\sequential}, and the result is the same. @separate @example d4 g,8 @end example Two notes. The first note is a quarter note with relative pitch @code{d}. The relative music was started with a @code{c''}, so the real pitch of this note is @code{d''}. The duration of a note is designated by a number; the @code{4} here represents a quarter note. The second note is an eight note with relative pitch @code{g,}. The pitch is taken relative to the previous @code{d''}, making this note have real pitch @code{g'}. The @code{8} represents an eight note. @separate @example a b @end example Two more notes, with pitch @code{a} and @code{b}. Because their duration is the same as the @code{g,8}, there is no need to enter the duration, but you may enter it anyway, i.e., @code{a8 b8} @separate @example d4 g, g | @end example @cindex bar check @cindex @code{|} @cindex errors, finding Three more notes. The @code{|} character is a ``bar check''. LilyPond will verify that bar checks are found at the start of a measure. This can help you track down typing errors. @cindex alteration, chromatic @cindex chromatic alteration @separate @example c8 d e fis @end example So far, no notes were chromatically altered. Here is the first one that is: @code{fis}. LilyPond uses Dutch note names, and ``Fis'' is the name for ``F sharp''. There is no sharp sign in the output. The program keeps track of key signatures, and will only print accidentals if they are needed. If you can not get used to Dutch names, then there also are names available in several other languages. For groups of eighth notes and shorter, LilyPond can determine how the notes should form a beam. In this case, the 4 eights are automatically printed as a beam. @separate @example c4 d8( )c b a( )b4 c8 b a g | @end example The beginning and ending notes of a slur are marked with parentheses, @code{(} and @code{)} for start and end respectively. The line above indicates two slurs. These slur markers (parentheses) are entered between the slurred notes. @separate @example a4 [b8 a] [g fis] @end example Automatic beaming can be overridden by inserting beam marks, @code{[} and @code{]}. These beam markers (brackets) are put around the notes you want beamed. @separate @example g2. | @end example @cindex augmentation dot @cindex dotted note A period adds a dot to the note. @separate @example @} @end example The end of the sequential music to be repeated. LilyPond will typeset a repeat bar. @separate @example cis'4 b8 cis a4 | @end example Accidentals are printed whenever necessary: the first C sharp of the bar will be printed with an accidental, the second one without. @separate @example a8-. b-. cis-. d-. e-. fis-. @end example @cindex articulation Staccato signs are entered as a dash and a period. Some other articulations may also be entered in this short form. @separate @example fis a, r8 cis8 @end example Rests are denoted by the special note name @code{r}. @separate @example d2.-\fermata @end example All articulations have a verbose form, like @code{\fermata}. The command @code{\fermata} is not part of the core of the language, but it is a shorthand for a more complicated description of a fermata symbol. @code{\fermata} names that description and is therefore called an identifier. @cindex identifier @cindex @code{\fermata} @separate @example \bar "|." @} @end example Here the music ends. LilyPond does not automatically typeset an end bar, we must explicitly request one, using @code{"|."}. @separate @example \paper @{ % standard settings are too big and wide for a book indent = 1.0\cm linewidth = 15.0\cm @} @end example The @code{\paper} block specifies how entered music should be converted to notation output. Most of the details of the conversion (font sizes, dimensions, etc.) have been taken care of, but to fit the output in this document, it has to be narrower. We do this by setting the line width to 14 centimeters (approximately 5.5 inches). @separate @example @} @end example The last brace ends the @code{\score} block. @node Lyrics and chords @section Lyrics and chords In this section we show how to typeset a song. This file is included as @file{flowing.ly}. @example \header @{ title = "The river is flowing" composer = "Traditional" @} \include "paper16.ly" melody = \notes \relative c' @{ \partial 8 \key c \minor g8 | c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | f4 f8 g [es() d] c g | c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | d4 es8 d c4. \bar "|." @} text = \lyrics @{ The ri -- ver is flo- __ wing, flo -- wing and gro -- wing, the ri -- ver is flo -- wing down to the sea. @} accompaniment =\chords @{ r8 c2:3- f:3-.7 d:min es4 c8:min r8 c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min @} \score @{ \simultaneous @{ %\accompaniment \context ChordNames \accompaniment \addlyrics \context Staff = mel @{ \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t \melody @} \context Lyrics \text @} \midi @{ \tempo 4=72 @} \paper @{ linewidth = 10.0\cm @} @} @end example The result would look this.@footnote{The titling and font size shown may differ, since the titling in this document is not generated by @code{ly2dvi}.} @center @strong{The river is flowing} @center Traditional @lilypond[center] \header { title = "The river is flowing" composer = "Traditional" } \include "paper16.ly" melody = \notes \relative c' { \partial 8 \key c \minor g8 | c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | f4 f8 g [es() d] c g | c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | d4 es8 d c4. \bar "|." } text = \lyrics { The ri -- ver is flo- __ wing, flo -- wing and gro -- wing, the ri -- ver is flo -- wing down to the sea. } accompaniment =\chords { r8 c2:3- f:3-.7 d:min es4 c8:min r8 c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min } \score { \simultaneous { %\accompaniment \context ChordNames \accompaniment \addlyrics \context Staff = mel { \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t \melody } \context Lyrics \text } \midi { \tempo 4=72 } \paper { linewidth = 10.0\cm } } @end lilypond Again, we will dissect the file line by line. @separate @example \header @{ @end example @cindex @code{\header} Information about the music you are about to typeset goes into a @code{\header} block. The information in this block is not used by LilyPond, but it is passed into the output. @file{ly2dvi} uses this information to print titles above the music. @separate @example title = "The river is flowing" composer = "Traditional (?)" @end example @cindex assignments @cindex identifier assignment the @code{\header} block contains assignments. In each assignment, a variable is set to a value. @separate @example \include "paper16.ly" @end example Smaller size for inclusion in a book. @separate @example melody = \notes \relative c' @{ @end example The structure of the file will be the same as the previous one, a @code{\score} block with music in it. To keep things readable, we will give names to the different parts of music, and use the names to construct the music within the score block. @separate @example \partial 8 @end example @cindex @code{\partial} @cindex anacrusis The piece starts with an anacrusis of one eighth. @separate @example \key c \minor @end example The key is C minor: we have three flats. @separate @example c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | f4 f8 g [es() d] c g | c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | d4 es8 d c4. \bar "|." @end example @cindex manual beaming @cindex automatic beaming, turning off We use explicit beaming. Since this is a song, we turn automatic beams off, and use explicit beaming where needed. @separate @example @} @end example This ends the definition of @code{melody}. @separate @example text = \lyrics @{ @end example @cindex lyrics @cindex identifier assignment @cindex syllables, entering Another identifier assignment. This one is for the lyrics. Lyrics are formed by syllables that have duration, and not by notes. To make LilyPond parse words as syllables, switch it into lyrics mode with @code{\lyrics}. Again, the brace after @code{\lyrics} is a shorthand for @code{\sequential @{}. @separate @example The ri -- ver is flo- __ wing, flo -- wing and gro -- wing, the ri- ver is flo- __ wing down to the sea. @} @end example @cindex extenders, lyric @cindex hyphens, lyric The syllables themselves are separated by spaces. You can get syllable extenders by entering @code{__}, and centered hyphens with @code{-}@code{-}. We don't enter durations for the syllables. They are aligned with the melody later. @separate @example accompaniment =\chords @{ @end example @cindex chords @cindex mode, chords We'll put chords over the music. To enter them, there is a special mode analogous to @code{\lyrics} and @code{\notes} mode, where you can give the names of the chords you want, instead of listing the notes comprising the chord. @separate @example r8 @end example There is no accompaniment during the anacrusis. @separate @example c2:3- @end example @cindex tonic @cindex chord modifier @cindex modifier, chord This is a c minor chord, lasting half a note. Chord are entered by entering the tonic. Then notes can be changed. In this case, a small third is used. The cod for this is @code{3-}. @separate @example f:3-.7 @end example Similarly, @code{7} modifies (adds) a seventh, which is small by default to create the @code{f a c es} chord. Multiple modifiers must be separated by dots. @separate @example d:min es4 c8:min r8 @end example Some modifiers have predefined names, e.g. @code{min} is the same as @code{3-}, so @code{d-min} is a minor @code{d} chord. @separate @example c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min @} @end example @cindex named modifier A named modifier @code{min} and a normal modifier @code{7} do not have to be separated by a dot. Tones from a chord are removed with chord subtractions. Subtractions are started with a caret, and they are also separated by dots. In this example, @code{g:7^3.5} produces a minor seventh. The brace ends the sequential music. @separate @example \score @{ \simultaneous @{ @end example We assemble the music in the @code{\score} block. Melody, lyrics and accompaniment have to sound at the same time, so they should be @code{\simultaneous}. @cindex @code{\simultaneous} @separate @example %\accompaniment @end example Chord mode generates notes grouped in @code{\simultaneous} music. If you remove the comment sign, you can see the chords in normal notation: they will be printed as note heads on a separate staff. To print them as chords names, they have to be interpreted as being chords, not notes. This is done with the following command: @separate @example \context ChordNames \accompaniment @end example @cindex context @cindex interpretation context @cindex notation context Normally, the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads. Note heads alone make no sense, they need surrounding information: a key signature, a clef, staff lines, etc. They need @emph{context}. In LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called `interpretation contexts'. Interpretation contexts exist for generating notation (`notation context') and for generating sound (`performance context'). These objects only exist during a run of LilyPond. When LilyPond interprets music, it will create a Staff context. If the @code{%} sign in the previous line were removed, you could see that mechanism in action. We don't want that default here, because we want chord names. The command above explicitly creates an interpretation context of @code{ChordNames} type to interpret the music @code{\accompaniment}. @separate @example \addlyrics @end example @cindex @code{\addlyrics} @cindex lyrics and melody, combining @cindex combining lyrics and melody The lyrics should be aligned with the melody. This is done by combining both with @code{\addlyrics}. @code{\addlyrics} takes two pieces of music (usually a melody and lyrics, in that order) and aligns the syllables of the second piece under the notes of the first piece. @separate @example \context Staff = mel @{ @end example We place the melody on a staff called @code{mel}. We give it a name to differentiate it from the one that would contain note heads for the chords, if you would remove the comment before the ``note heads'' version of the accompaniment. By giving this staff a name, it is forced to be different. @separate @example \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f @end example @cindex \property @cindex context variables @cindex setting context variables An interpretation context has variables, called properties, that tune its behavior. One of the variables is @code{autoBeaming}. Setting this @code{Staff}'s property to @code{##f}, which is the boolean value @var{false}, turns the automatic beaming mechanism off for the current staff. @ignore @cindex GUILE @cindex Scheme @cindex accessing Scheme @cindex evaluating Scheme @cindex LISP LilyPond internally uses GUILE, a Scheme-interpreter. Scheme is a language from the LISP family. You can learn more about Scheme at @uref{http://www.scheme.org}. It is used to represent data throughout the whole program. The hash-sign (@code{#}) accesses GUILE directly: the code following the hash-sign is evaluated as Scheme. The boolean value @var{true} is @code{#t} in Scheme, so for LilyPond @var{true} looks like @code{##t}. If Scheme scares you, don't worry. You don't need to know Scheme to create beautiful sheet music. @end ignore @separate @example \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t @end example @cindex automaticMelismata @cindex melismata @cindex @code{\addlyrics} and slurs Similarly, we don't want to print a syllable when there is a slur. This sets up @code{\addlyrics} to not put lyrics under each separate note while there is a slur. @separate @example \melody @} @end example Finally, we put the melody on the current staff. Note that the @code{\property} directives and @code{\melody} are grouped in sequential music, so the property settings are done before the melody is processed. @separate @example \context Lyrics \text @end example The second argument of @code{\addlyrics} is the text. The text also should not land on a Staff, but on a interpretation context for syllables, extenders, hyphens etc. This context is called Lyrics. @separate @example \midi @{ \tempo 4=72@} @end example MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for connecting and recording digital instruments. So a MIDI file is like a tape recording of an instrument. The @code{\midi} block makes the music go to a MIDI file, so you can listen to the music you entered. It is great for checking the music. Whenever you hear something weird, you probably hear a typing error. Syntactically, @code{\midi} is similar to @code{\paper @{ @}}, since it also specifies an output method. You can specify the tempo using the @code{\tempo} command, in this case the tempo of quarter notes is set to 72 beats per minute. @separate @example \paper @{ linewidth = 10.0\cm @} @end example We also want notation output. The linewidth is short so the piece will be set in two lines. @node More movements @section More movements [FIXME: merge here with, or move this to: Other ways to run LilyPond] You probably ran @file{ly2dvi} on the last example, and ended up with a viewable @file{.dvi} file. However, between there are a few steps of which LilyPond is only one. To enhance your understanding of what's happening under the hood when you run @code{ly2dvi}, we explain what programs are run. @code{ly2dvi} is a program that calls a number of programs in sequence. The first thing it does, is running LilyPond on the input file. After some calculations, a @file{.tex} is produced. The contents of this file are very low-level instructions. For example, consider the following file (@file{miniatures.ly}) @example \version "1.5.60" \header @{ title = "Two miniatures" tagline = "small is beautiful" @} #(set! point-and-click line-column-location) \paper @{ linewidth = -1.0 @} \score @{ \notes @{ c'4 d'4 @} \header @{ opus = "Opus 1." piece = "Up" @} @} \score @{ \notes @{ d'4 c'4 @} \header @{ opus = "Opus 2." piece = "Down" @} @} @end example The titling in this manual was not generated by ly2dvi, so we can't exactly show what it would look like, but the result should resemble this: @center @strong{Two miniatures} @flushright Opus 1. @end flushright @flushleft @var{Up} @end flushleft @lilypond \score { \notes { c'4 d'4 } \paper { linewidth = -1.0 } } @end lilypond @flushright Opus 2. @end flushright @flushleft @var{Down} @end flushleft @lilypond \score { \notes { d'4 c'4 } \paper { linewidth = -1.0 } } @end lilypond This file is produced by ly2dvi in a few stages, with the help of text formatting tools. LilyPond produces two output files, @file{miniatures.tex} and @file{miniatures-1.tex}. Both files contain only graphical music notation. @file{ly2dvi} looks at what output LilyPond produces, and adds page layout and titling to those files. The result is a DVI file called @file{miniatures.dvi}. Next, now we'll look at the example line by line to explain new things. @separate @example \version "1.4.0" @end example Lilypond and its language are still under development, and occasionally, details of the syntax are changed. This fragment indicates for which version the input file was written. When you compile this file, the version number will be checked, and you will get a warning when the file is too old. This version number is also used by the @code{convert-ly} program (See @ref{convert-ly}), which is used to update the file to the latest lily version. @separate @example \header @{ title = "Two miniatures" @} @end example This sets the titling information for the entire file. @separate @example tagline = "small is beautiful" @end example A signature line is printed at the bottom of the last page. This signature is produced from the @code{tagline} field of @code{\header}. Many people find the default "Lily was here, @var{version number}" too droll. If that is the case, assign something else to @code{tagline}, as shown above. @separate @example #(set! point-and-click line-column-location) @end example This piece of Scheme code sets the Scheme variable @code{point-and-click} to the value @var{line-column-location} (which itself is a Scheme procedure). Editing input files can be complicated if you're working with large files: if you're digitizing existing music, you have to synchronize the .ly file, the sheet music on your lap and the sheet music on the screen. The point-and-click mechanism makes it easy to find the origin of an error in the LY file: when you view the file with Xdvi and click on a note, your editor will jump to the spot where that note was entered. For more information, see @ref{Point and click}. @separate @example \paper @{ @end example The @code{\score} blocks that follow in the file don't have @code{\paper} sections, so the settings of this block are substituted: A paper block at top level, i.e. not in a @code{\score} block sets the default page layout. @separate @example linewidth = -1.0 @} @end example The variable @code{linewidth} normally sets the length of the systems on the page. However, a negative value has a special meaning. If @code{linewidth} is less than 0, no line breaks are inserted into the score, and the spacing is set to natural length: a short phrase takes up little space, a longer phrase more space. @separate @example \score @{ \notes @{ c'4 d'4 @} @end example In previous examples, notes were specified in relative octaves, i.e. each note was put in the octave that is closest to its predecessor. Besides relative, there is also absolute octave specification, which you get when you don't specify @code{\relative}. In this input mode, the central C is denoted by @code{c'}. Going down, you get @code{c} @code{c,} @code{c,,} etc. Going up, you get @code{c''} @code{c'''} etc. When you're copying music from existing sheet music, relative octaves are probably the easiest to use: it's less typing work and errors are easily spotted. However, if you write LilyPond input directly, either by hand (i.e. composing) or by computer, absolute octaves may be easier to use. @separate @example \header @{ @end example The @code{\header} is normally at the top of the file, where it sets values for the rest of the file. If you want to typeset different pieces from one file (for example, if there are multiple movements, or if you're making an exercise book), you can put different @code{\score} blocks into the input file. ly2dvi will assemble all LilyPond output files into a big document. The contents of \header blocks specified within each score, are used for the titling of each movement. @separate @example opus = "Opus 1." piece = "Up" @} @end example For example, the Opus number is put at the right, and the piece string will be at the left. @node A piano excerpt @section A piano excerpt Our fourth subject is a piece of piano music. The fragment in the input file is a piano reduction of the G major Sinfonia by Giovanni Battista Sammartini. It was composed around 1740. It's in the source package under the name @file{sammartini.ly}. @lilypondfile[verbatim]{sammartini.ly} As you can see, this example features multiple voices on one staff. To make room for those voices, their notes have to be stemmed in opposite directions. LilyPond includes the identifiers @code{\stemUp}, @code{\stemDown} along with some other commonly used formatting instructions, but to explain how it works, we wrote our own here. Of course, you should use predefined identifiers like these if possible: then you will be affected less by the implementation changes we occasionally make. @separate @example viola = \notes \relative c' \context Voice = viola @{ @end example In this example, you can see multiple parts on a staff. Each part is associated with one notation context. This notation context handles stems and dynamics (among others). The type name of this context is @code{Voice}. For each part we have to make sure that there is precisely one @code{Voice} context, so we give it a unique name (`@code{viola}'). @separate @example @end example The delimiters @code{<} and @code{>} are shorthands for @code{\simultaneous @{} and @code{@}}. The expression enclosed in @code{<} and @code{>} is a chord. @cindex arpeggio @code{\arpeggio} typesets an arpeggio sign (a wavy vertical line) before the chord. @separate @example \voiceTwo @end example We want the viola to have stems down, and have all the other characteristics of a second voice. This is enforced using the @code{\voiceTwo} command: it inserts instructions that makes stem, ties, slurs, etc. go down. @separate @example g'8. b,16 @end example Relative octaves work a little differently with chords. The starting point for the note following a chord is the first note of the chord. So the @code{g} gets an octave up quote: it is a fifth above the starting note of the previous chord (the central C). @separate @example s1 s2. r4 @end example @code{s} is a spacer rest. It does not print anything, but it does have the duration of a rest. It is useful for filling up voices that temporarily don't play. In this case, the viola doesn't come until one and a half measure later. @separate @example oboes = \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = oboe @{ @end example Now comes a part for two oboes. They play homophonically, so we print the notes as one voice that makes chords. Again, we insure that these notes are indeed processed by precisely one context with @code{\context}. @separate @example \voiceOne s4 g8. b,16 c8 r @end example The oboes should have stems up, so they should have stems up, to keep them from interfering with the staff-jumping bass figure. @separate @example \grace < d4 )f> @end example @cindex @code{\grace} @cindex ornaments @cindex grace notes @code{\grace} introduces grace notes. It takes one argument, in this case a chord. A slur is introduced starting from the @code{\grace} ending on the following chord. @separate @example \times 2/3 @end example @cindex tuplet @cindex triplets Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so in this case the fraction is 2/3. @separate @example @{ @} @end example The piece of music to be `tripletted' is sequential music containing three chords. @separate @example < @end example At this point, the homophonic music splits into two rhythmically different parts. We can't use a sequence of chords to enter this, so we make a `chord' of sequences to do it. We start with the upper voice, which continues with upward stems: @separate @example @{ \times 2/3 @{ a8 g c @} c2 @} @end example @separate @example \\ @end example The easiest way to enter multiple voices is demonstrated here. Separate the components of the voice (single notes or entire sequences) with @code{\\} in a simultaneous music expression. The @code{\\} separators split first voice, second voice, third voice, and so on. As far as relative mode is concerned, the previous note is the @code{c'''2} of the upper voice, so we have to go an octave down for the @code{f}. @separate @example f,8 e e2 @} > @end example This ends the two-part section. @separate @example \stemBoth \grace <)b8. d8.-\trill> | @end example @cindex trill @cindex stemBoth @code{\stemBoth} ends the forced stem directions. From here, stems are positioned as if it were single part music. The bass has a little hoom-pah melody to demonstrate parts switching between staves. Since it is repetitive, we use repeats: @separate @example hoomPah = \repeat unfold 8 @end example @cindex unfolded @code{\repeat} The unfolded repeat prints the notes in its argument as if they were written out in full eight times. @separate @example \notes \transpose c' @{ @end example @cindex transposing @cindex relative mode and transposing Transposing can be done with @code{\transpose}, which takes two arguments. The first specifies what central C should be transposed to. The second is the to-be-transposed music. As you can see, in this case, the transposition has no effect, as central C stays at central C. The purpose of this no-op is to protect it from being interpreted as relative notes. Relative mode can not be used together with transposition, so @code{\relative} will leave the contents of @code{\hoomPah} alone. We can use it without having to worry about getting the motive in a wrong octave. @separate @cindex staff switch, manual @cindex cross staff voice, manual @cindex @code{\translator} @example \translator Staff = down \stemUp c8 \translator Staff = up \stemDown c'8 @} @end example Voices can switch between staves. Here you see two staff switching commands. The first one moves to the lower staff, the second one to the lower one. If you set stem directions explicitly (using the identifiers @code{\stemUp} and @code{\stemDown}. @separate @example bassvoices = \notes \relative c' @{ c4 g8. b,16 \autochange Staff \hoomPah \context Voice @end example @separate @example \translator Staff = down @end example @cindex staff switch @cindex cross staff voice We want the remaining part of this melody on the lower staff, so we do a manual staff switch here. @separate @example \context Voice = reallyLow @{\stemDown g2 ~ | g4 c8 @} > @end example @cindex tie @cindex @code{~} After skipping some lines, we see @code{~}. This mark makes ties. Note that ties and slurs are different things. A tie can only connect two note heads of the same pitch, whereas a slur can connect many chords with one curve. @separate @example \context PianoStaff @end example A special context is needed to get cross staff beaming right. This context is called @code{PianoStaff}. @separate @example \context Staff = bottom < \time 2/2 \clef bass @end example The bottom staff must have a different clef. @separate @example indent = 0.0 @end example To make some more room on the line, the first (in this case the only) line is not indented. The line still looks very cramped, but that is due to the page layout of this document. @ignore [TODO: * font-size, multi-stanza. * Simple part combining in a Hymn @end ignore @node Fine tuning a piece @section Fine tuning a piece In this section, we show some ways to fine tune the final output of a piece. We do so using a single measure of a moderately complex piano piece: a Brahms intermezzo (opus 119, no. 1). @cindex Brahms, Johannes The code for the untuned example shows us some new things. @lilypondfile[verbatim]{brahms-original.ly} @cindex dynamics @cindex loudness @cindex forte @cindex crescendo @cindex @code{\<} @cindex @code{\!} The crescendo is ended at the half note by the escaped exclamation mark @code{\!}. Hairpin dynamics can be indicated using @code{\>} to start a decrescendo, and @code{\!} to end one. The crescendo is started using @code{\<} and also ended using @code{\!}. Absolute dynamics can be entered using @code{\p}, @code{\mf}, etc. All these commands apply to the complete chord where they are entered, but for syntactical reasons, they must be attached to one of the notes of the chord. @cindex fingering instructions Fingering indications are entered simply using @code{-@var{N}}, where @var{N} is a digit. Now that we have the basic piece of music entered, we want to fine tune it, so we get something that resembles the original printed edition by Schott/Universal Edition: @lilypondfile{brahms-tweaked.ly} @cindex tuning grob behavior The basic process that we follow is that we override defaults in the printing system. We do this by setting variables in so-called grobs. Printed symbols are internally represented by Graphical Objects (Grobs). Each grob is described by a bunch of settings. These setting determine the fonts, offsets, sub-routines to be called on the grob, etc. The initial values of these settings are set in the Scheme file @file{scm/grob-description.scm}. @cindex slur attachments We start with the slur: the slur in the upper part, running from the F sharp to the A, runs from stem to stem in the printed edition, while ours starts from the note head at the left. The following property setting forces all slurs to run from stem to stem (and not from or to note head) @example \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem) @end example More precisely, this command extends the definition of the @code{Slur} object in the current @code{Voice}. The variable @code{attachment} is set to the pair of symbols @code{'(stem . stem)}. Although this is useful information, it is not very helpful: the lilypond backend supports approximately 240 variables like @code{attachment}, each with their own meaning and own type (eg. number, symbol, list, etc). Besides slur, LilyPond has 80 different types of Grobs, that may be created in 14 different context types besides Voice. @cindex internal documentation @cindex finding grobs @cindex grob descriptiosn The interesting information is how you can figure out which properties to tune for your own scores. To discover this, you must have a copy of the internals document. This is a set of HTML pages, which should be included if you run a binary distribution@footnote{You can also compile them by executing @code{make -C Documentation/user/ out/lilypond-internals.html} in the source package.}. This document is also available on the web: go to the lilypond website, click ``Documentation: other'' on the side bar, click ``lilypond-internals'', under information for users. You might want to bookmark either the HTML files on disk, or the one on the web. One word of caution is in place here: the internals documentation is generated from the definitions that lily uses. For that reason, it is strongly tied to the version of LilyPond that you use. Before you proceed, please make sure that you are using the documentation that corresponds to the LilyPond version that you use. Suppose that you wanted to tune the behavior of the slur. The first step is to get some general info on slurs in lilypond. Turn to the index, and look up slur. The section on slurs says @quotation The grob for this object is @internalsref{Slur}, generally in @internalsref{Voice} context. @end quotation So the grob for this object is called @code{Slur}, and slurs are created in the @code{Voice} context. If you are reading this tutorial in the HTML version, then you can simply click Slur, otherwise, you must look it up the internal documentation: click ``grob overview'' , and select ``slur'' (the list is alphabetical.) Now you get a list of all the properties that the slur object supports, along with their default values. Among the properties we find the @code{attachment} property, leading to @example \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem) @end example If you ran the previous example, you have unknowingly already used this kind of command. The @file{ly/property-init.ly} contains the definition of @code{\stemUp} @example stemUp = \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1 @end example We also want to move around the fingering `3'. In the printed edition it is not above the stem, but a little lower, slightly left of the stem. From the user manual, we find that the associated grob is called @code{Fingering}, but how do we know if we should use @code{Voice} or @code{Staff}. In many cases, @code{Voice} is a safe bet, but you can also deduce this information from the internals documentation: if you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering}, you will notice @example Fingering grobs are created by: Fingering_engraver @end example Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} will show you the documentation of the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and translating them to a @code{Fingering} grob. Such a module is called an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver} says, @example Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice and TabVoice @end example so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done using either @example \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{} @end example or @example \property TabVoice.Fingering \set @dots{} @end example Since the @code{TabVoice} is only used for tab notation, we see that the first guess @code{Voice} was indeed correct. @cindex setting grob properties @cindex @code{extra-offset} For shifting the fingering, we use the grob property @code{extra-offset}. The following command manually adds an offset to the object. We move it a little to the left, and 1.8 staff space downwards. @example \property Voice.Fingering \set #'extra-offset = #'(-0.3 . -1.8) @end example The @code{extra-offset} is a low-level feature: it moves around objects in the printout; the formatting engine is completely oblivious to these offsets. @cindex reverting grob properties @cindex undoing grob properties We only want to offset a single grob, so after the F-sharp, we must undo the setting. The technical term is to revert the grob property. @example \property Voice.Fingering \revert #'extra-offset @end example @cindex property types @cindex translator properties @cindex grob properties @cindex music properties There is three different types of variables in LilyPond, something which is confusing at first (and for some, it stays like that). Variables such as @code{extra-offset} and @code{attachment} are called grob properties. They are something different from the translator properties, like @code{autoBeaming} and @code{automaticMelismata}. Finally, music expressions are internally also stored using properties, so-called music properties. You will encounter the latter type if you run Scheme functions on music using @code{\apply}. The second fingering instruction should be moved up a little, to avoid a collision with the slur. This could be achieved with @code{extra-offset}, but in this case, a simpler mechanism also works. We insert an empty text between the 5 and the note. The empty text pushes the fingering instruction away: @example a^" "^#'(finger "5") @end example Lilypond tries to put fingering instructions closer to the notes as text instructions. To insert an empty text (@code{^" "}) between the finger and the note, we have disguised the fingering instruction as a text: @code{(finger "5")}. Normally, one would specify dynamics in a single voice, and start and end dynamics (such as @b{f} and @b{p}) will be aligned with hairpins. In this case, we want the decrescendo to be in a different place from the piano sign. We achieve this by putting the dynamic markings in different voices. The crescendo should be above the upper staff. This can be forced by the precooked command @example \dynamicsUp @end example However, if you do that, the decrescendo will be too close to the upper voice, and collide with the stems. Looking at the manual for dynamics, we notice that ``Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob.''. If we turn to the documentation of @code{DynamicLineSpanner}, we find that the @code{DynamicLineSpanner} supports several so-called `interfaces'. This grob not only puts dynamic objects next to the staff (@code{side-position-interface}), but it also groups dynamic objects (@code{axis-group-interface}), is considered a dynamic sign itself (@code{dynamic-interface}) and is a grob: it has the @code{grob-interface}, with all the variables that come with it. For the moment, we are interested in the side positioning: @quotation side-position-interface Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the support). In this case, the direction signifies where to put the victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?) @end quotation Between the grob and its support (in this case: the notes in the voice going down), there should be more space. This space is controlled by @code{padding}, so we increase it. @example \property Voice.DynamicLineSpanner \override #'padding = #5.0 @end example This command is almost like the command for setting slur attachments, but subtly different in its details. Grob properties can be manipulated with two commands: @code{\override} extends the grob variables with a setting, and @code{\revert} releases this setting. This has a certain theoretical appeal: the operations are simple and symmetric. For practical use, it can be cumbersome. Both commands act like parentheses: you should carefully balance the use of @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The @code{\set} command is more friendly: it first does a @code{\revert} followed by @code{\override}. Finally, Brahms uses music notation is a slightly unorthodox way. Ties usually happen only within one voice. In this piece, the composer gladly produces ties that jump voices. We deal with this by faking these ties: whenever we need such a tie, we insert a notehead in a different voice, and blank the stem. This is done in the following snippet of code. @example \property Voice.Stem \set #'transparent = ##t d' \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent @end example Finally, the last tie is forced up using @code{\tieUp}. @node An orchestral score @section An orchestral score @menu * The full score:: * Extracting an individual part:: @end menu Our last two examples show a way to setup the music for an orchestral score. When typesetting a piece for several instruments, you'll want to create a conductor's full score, alongside several individual parts. LilyPond is well suited for this task. We will declare the music for each instrument individually, giving the music of each instrument its own name. These pieces of music are then combined in different @code{\score} blocks to produce different combinations of the score. This orchestral score example consists of three input files. In the first file, @file{os-music.ly}, we define the music for all instruments. This file will be used both for producing the score and the separate parts. If you were to run LilyPond on this file, no printable output would be produced. @example % os-music.ly \header @{ title = "Zo, goed lieverd?" subtitle = "How's, this babe?" composer = "JCN" opus = "1" piece = "Laid back" @} global = @{ \time 2/4 \skip 2*4 \bar "|." @} Key = \notes \key as \major flautoI = \notes\relative c'' @{ f8 g f g f g f g bes as bes as bes as bes as @} flautoII = \notes\relative c'' @{ as8 bes as bes R1 d4 ~ d @} tromboI = \notes\relative c'' @{ c4. c8 c8 c4. es4 r as, r @} tromboII = \notes\relative c'' @{ as4. as8 as8 as4. R1*1/2 as4 es' @} timpani = \notes\relative c, @{ \times 2/3 @{ f4 f f @} \times 4/5 @{ as8 as as as as @} R1 @} corno = \notes\relative c' @{ bes4 d f, bes d f, bes d @} @end example We will not go through the input line by line, but only indicate and explain the new elements. @separate @example global = @{ \time 2/4 \skip 2*4 \bar "|."; @} @end example Declare setting to be used globally. The @code{\skip} command produces no output, but moves forward in time: in this case, the duration of a half note (@code{2}), and that four times (@code{*4}). This brings us to the end of the piece, and we can set the end bar. @separate @example Key = \notes \key as \major @end example Declare the key signature of the piece and assign it to the identifier @var{Key}. Later on, we'll use @code{\Key} for all staves except those for transposing instruments. @node The full score @subsection The full score The second file, @file{os-score.ly} reads the definitions of the first (@file{os-music.ly}), and defines the @code{\score} block for the full conductor's score. @example % os-score.ly \include "os-music.ly" \include "paper13.ly" #(set! point-and-click line-column-location) #(define text-flat '((font-relative-size . -2) (music "accidentals--1"))) \score @{ < \global \property Score.BarNumber \override #'padding = #3 \context StaffGroup = woodwind < \context Staff = flauti < \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" \property Staff.instrument = "2 Flauti" \property Staff.instr = "Fl." \Key \context Voice=one @{ \voiceOne \flautoI @} \context Voice=two @{ \voiceTwo \flautoII @} > > \context StaffGroup = timpani < \context Staff = timpani < \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"timpani" \property Staff.instrument = #'(lines "Timpani" "(C-G)") \property Staff.instr = #"Timp." \clef bass \Key \timpani > > \context StaffGroup = brass < \context Staff = trombe < \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"trumpet" \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "2 Trombe" "(C)") \property Staff.instr = #`(lines "Tbe." "(C)") \Key \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice \context Thread=one \tromboI \context Thread=two \tromboII > \context Staff = corni < \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"french horn" \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "Corno" (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")")) \property Staff.instr = #`(lines "Cor." (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")")) \property Staff.transposing = #3 \notes \key bes \major \context Voice=one \corno > > > \paper @{ indent = 15 * \staffspace linewidth = 60 * \staffspace textheight = 90 * \staffspace \translator@{ \HaraKiriStaffContext @} @} \midi @{ \tempo 4 = 75 @} @} @end example @center @strong{Zo, goed lieverd?} @sp 1 @center How's, this babe? @flushright Opus 1. @end flushright @flushleft @sc{Laid back} @end flushleft @lilypondfile{os-score.ly} @separate @example \include "os-music.ly" @end example First, we need to include the music definitions we made in @file{os-music.ly}. @separate @example #(set! point-and-click line-column-location) @end example In a large orchestral score like this you're bound to make some small mistakes, so we enable point and click (See @ref{Point and click}) editing. @separate @example #(define text-flat '((font-relative-size . -2) (music "accidentals--1"))) @end example When naming the tuning of the french horn, we'll need a piece of text with a flat sign. LilyPond has a mechanism for font selection and kerning called Scheme markup text (See @ref{Text markup}). The flat sign is taken from the music font, and its name is @code{accidentals--1} (The natural sign is called @code{accidentals-0}). The default font is too big for text, so we select a relative size of @code{-2}. @separate @example < \global @end example Of course, all staves are simultaneous and use the same global settings. @separate @example \property Score.BarNumber \override #'padding = #3 @end example LilyPond prints bar numbers at the start of each line, but unfortunately, they end up a bit too close to the staff in this example. A bar number internally is a Grob called @var{BarNumber}. BarNumber Grobs can be manipulated through their @var{side-position-interface}. One of the properties of a @var{side-position-interface} that can be tweaked is the @var{padding}: the amount of extra space that is put between this Grob and other Grobs. We set the padding to three staff spaces. You can find information on all these kind of properties in LilyPond's automatically generated documentation in @ifnottex @ref{ (lilypond-internals)lilypond-internals, LilyPond Internals}. @end ifnottex @iftex the online documentation. @end iftex @separate @example \context StaffGroup = woodwind < \context Staff = flauti < @end example A new notation context: the @code{StaffGroup}. @code{StaffGroup} can hold one or more @code{Staff}'s, and will print a big bracket at the left of the score. Start a new staff group for the woodwind section (just the flutes in this case). Immediately after that, we start the staff for the two flutes, that also play simultaneously. @separate @example \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" @end example Specify the instrument for MIDI output (see @ref{MIDI instrument names}). @separate @example \property Staff.instrument = "2 Flauti" \property Staff.instr = "Fl." @end example And define the instrument names to be printed in the margin, @code{instrument} for the first line of the score, @code{instr} for the rest of the score. @separate @example \Key @end example The flutes play in the default key. @separate @example \context Voice=one @{ \voiceOne \flautoI @} \context Voice=two @{ \voiceTwo \flautoII @} @end example Last come the actual flute parts. Remember that we're still in simultaneous mode. We name both voices differently, so that LilyPond will actually create two Voice contexts. The flute parts are simple, so we specify manually which voice is which: @code{\voiceOne} forces the direction of stems, beams, slurs and ties up, @code{\voiceTwo} sets directions down. @separate @example > > @end example Close the flutes staff and woodwind staff group. @separate @example \property Staff.instrument = #'(lines "Timpani" "(C-G)") @end example The timpani staff only shows a new piece of scheme markup, it sets two lines of text. @separate @example \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice \context Thread=one \tromboI \context Thread=two \tromboII @end example You have seen the notation contexts Staff and Voice, but here's a new one: Thread. One or more Threads can be part of a Voice. The Thread takes care of note heads and rests, the Voice combine note heads onto a stem. For the trumpets we use the automatic part combiner (see @ref{Automatic part combining}) to combine the two simultaneous trumpet parts onto the trumpet staff. Each trumpet gets its own Thread context, which must be named @code{one} and @code{two}). The part combiner makes these two threads share a Voice when they're similar, and splits the threads up when they're different. @separate @example \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "Corno" (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")")) @end example The french horn has the most complex scheme markup name, made up of two lines of text. The second line has three elements (columns), the @code{(E}, the flat sign @code{text-flat} that we defined before and a final @code{")"}. Note that we use a backquote instead of an ordinary quote at the beginning of the Scheme expression to be able to access the @code{text-flat} identifier, `unquoting' it with a @code{,}. @separate @example \property Staff.transposing = #3 @end example The french horn is to be tuned in E-flat, so we tell the MIDI backend to transpose this staff by three steps. Note how we can choose different tuning for entering, printing and playing, using @code{\transpose} and the MIDI Staff property @var{transposing}. @separate @example \notes \key bes \major @end example Therefore, it has a different key. @separate @example indent = 15 * \staffspace linewidth = 60 * \staffspace @end example We specify a big indent for the first line and a small linewidth for this tutorial. @separate Usually, LilyPond's predefined setup of notation contexts (Thread, Voice, Staff, Staffgroup, Score) is just fine. But in this case, we want a different type of Staff context. @example \translator@{ \HaraKiriStaffContext @} @end example In orchestral scores, it often happens that one instrument has only rests during one line of the score. The @code{HaraKiriStaffContext} can be used as a regular @code{StaffContext} drop-in and will take care of the automatic removing of empty staves. @node Extracting an individual part @subsection Extracting an individual part The third file, @file{os-flute-2.ly} also reads the definitions of the first (@file{os-music.ly}), and defines the @code{\score} block for the second flute part. @example \include "os-music.ly" \include "paper16.ly" \score @{ \context Staff < \property Score.skipBars = ##t \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" \global \Key \flautoII > \header @{ instrument = "Flauto II" @} \paper @{ linewidth = 80 * \staffspace textheight = 200 * \staffspace @} \midi @{ \tempo 4 = 75 @} @} @end example @center @strong{Zo, goed lieverd?} @sp 1 @center How's, this babe? @center @emph{Flauto II} @flushright Opus 1. @end flushright @flushleft @sc{Laid back} @end flushleft @lilypondfile{os-flute-2.ly} Because we separated the music definitions from the @code{\score} instantiations, we can easily define a second score with the music of the second flute. This then is the part for the second flute player. Of course, we make separate parts for all individual instruments. @separate @example \flautoII @end example In this individual part the second flute has a whole staff for itself, so we don't want to force stem or tie directions. @separate @example \header @{ instrument = "Flauto II" @} @end example The @code{\header} definitions were also read from @file{os-music.ly}, but we need to set the instrument for this particular score. @separate @example \property Score.skipBars = ##t @end example In the conductor's full score, all bars with rests are printed, but for the individual parts, we want to contract pieces of consecutive empty bars. LilyPond will do this if Score's @var{skipBars} property to true. @node Other ways to run LilyPond @section Other ways to run LilyPond Until now, you have been using @file{ly2dvi} to invoke LilyPond. There are three other routes. Firstly, there is a script called @code{lilypond-book}, that allows you to freely mix LilyPond input with Texinfo or \LaTeX input. For example, this manual was written using @code{lilypond-book}. It is discussed below and in @ref{lilypond-book}. Secondly, you can generate PostScript directly. This is useful if you can not or do not want to run @TeX{} on your system. To obtain direct PostScript output, invoke LilyPond as follows: @cindex PostScript output @example lilypond -f ps test.ly @end example You have to set some environment variables to view or print this output. More information can be found in @ref{Invoking LilyPond}. Since the direct Postscript generation has some problems, it is recommended to use @file{ly2dvi}. Thirdly, if you want to do special things with your output, you can run invoke LilyPond directly: @example lilypond test.ly @end example to produce plain @TeX{} output. Note that La@TeX{} will not work on the resulting @file{test.tex}. You must run plain @TeX{} on it. @cindex @TeX{} @node Integrating text and music @section Integrating text and music Sometimes, you might want to use music examples in a text that you are writing. For example, if you are writing a musicological treatise, a songbook, or (like us) the LilyPond manual. You can make such texts by hand, simply by importing a PostScript figure into your wordprocessor. However, there is a also an automated procedure: If you use La@TeX{} or texinfo, you can mix text and LilyPond code. A script called @code{lilypond-book} will extract the music fragments, run LilyPond on them, and put back the resulting notation. lilypond-book is described fully in @ref{lilypond-book}, but here we show a small example. Since the example also contains explanatory text, we won't comment on the contents. @example \documentclass[a4paper]@{article@} \begin@{document@} In a lilypond-book document, you can freely mix music and text. For example: \begin@{lilypond@} \score @{ \notes \relative c' @{ c2 g'2 \times 2/3 @{ f8 e d @} c'2 g4 @} @} \end@{lilypond@} Notice that the music line length matches the margin settings of the document. If you have no \verb+\score+ block in the fragment, \texttt@{lilypond-book@} will supply one: \begin@{lilypond@} c'4 \end@{lilypond@} In the example you see here, a number of things happened: a \verb+\score+ block was added, and the line width was set to natural length. You can specify many more options using \LaTeX style options in brackets: \begin[verbatim,11pt,singleline, fragment,relative,intertext="hi there!"]@{lilypond@} c'4 f bes es \end@{lilypond@} \texttt@{verbatim@} also shows the LilyPond code, \texttt@{11pt@} selects the default music size, \texttt@{fragment@} adds a score block, \texttt@{relative@} uses relative mode for the fragment, and \texttt@{intertext@} specifies what to print between the \texttt@{verbatim@} code and the music. If you include large examples into the text, it may be more convenient to put the example in a separate file: \lilypondfile[printfilename]@{sammartini.ly@} The \texttt@{printfilename@} option adds the file name to the output. \end@{document@} @end example Under Unix, you can view the results as follows. @example $ cd input/tutorial $ lilypond-book --outdir=out/ lilbook.tex lilypond-book (GNU LilyPond) 1.3.146 Reading `input/tutorial/lilbook.tex' Reading `input/tutorial/sammartini.ly' @var{lots of stuff deleted} Writing `out/lilbook.latex' $ cd out $ latex lilbook.latex @var{lots of stuff deleted} $ xdvi lilbook @end example Notice the @code{outdir} option to lilypond-book. Running lilypond-book and running latex creates a lot of temporary files, and you wouldn't want those to clutter up your working directory. Hence, we have them created in a separate subdirectory. The result more or less looks like this: @separate In a lilypond-book document, you can freely mix music and text. For example: @lilypond \score { \notes \relative c' { c2 g'2 \times 2/3 { f8 e d } c'2 g4 } } @end lilypond Notice that the music line length matches the margin settings of the document. If you have no @code{\score} block in the fragment, @code{lilypond-book} will supply one: @lilypond c'4 @end lilypond In the example you see here, a number of things happened: a @code{\score} block was added, and the line width was set to natural length. You can specify many more options using La@TeX{} style options in brackets: @lilypond[verbatim,11pt,singleline, fragment,relative,intertext="hi there!"] c'4 f bes es @end lilypond @code{verbatim} also shows the LilyPond code, @code{11pt} selects the default music size, @code{fragment} adds a score block, @code{relative} uses relative mode for the fragment, and @code{intertext} specifies what to print between the @code{verbatim} code and the music. If you include large examples into the text, it may be more convenient to put the example in a separate file: @lilypondfile[printfilename]{sammartini.ly} The @code{printfilename} option adds the file name to the output. @node End of tutorial @section End of tutorial That's all folks. From here, you can either try fiddling with input files, or you can read the reference manual. You can find more example files in @file{input} and @file{input/test}. You can also look at some real music. The website @uref{http://www.mutopiaproject.org} has many examples of real music typeset by LilyPond. @ignore [TODO this should be on mutopia website. ] @c waar deze info? is uiteindelijk wel handig, schat ik. [TODO: cut blabla] If you have a big music project, or just a lot of LilyPond input files, all generated output from LilyPond, @TeX{} and metafont will clutter your working directory. LilyPond comes with a one-size-fits-all pre-cooked makefile that helps you manage producing output. It will produce all output in the directory @file{out} , generate and track dependencies. Also, it helps in preparing your submission to @ref{Mutopia project}. @file{make/ly.make} @example mkdir my-project cd my-project cp /usr/share/lilypond/make/ly.make GNUmakefile cp /usr/share/doc/lilypond/examples/input/tutorial/minuet.ly . make minuet [..] Generated out/minuet.ps for target minuet. @end example Type @samp{make help} to see possible targets. [TODO] @file{/usr/share/lilypond/doc/lilypond/examples/input/mutopia-header.ly} [TODO: rewrite completely.] @menu * Songs with additional verses:: @end menu @end ignore