@c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; documentlanguage: hu -*- @c This file is part of learning.tely @ignore Translation of GIT committish: 48c2b169dc8a9bc2ab2c767cbb83b57cc158742b When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the version that you are working on. For details, see the Contributors' Guide, node Updating translation committishes.. @end ignore @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*- @c \version "2.17.29" @node Alapfogalmak @chapter Alapfogalmak @translationof Fundamental concepts @translationof Fundamental concepts Miután megtanultuk, hogyan állíthatunk elő gyönyörű kottákat egyszerű szöveges fájlokból, ebben a szakaszban megismerjük azokat a fogalmakat és technikákat, amelyek segítségével hasonlóan gyönyörű, de bonyolultabb kottákat készíthetünk. @menu * Hogyan működnek a LilyPond bemeneti fájlok?:: * A szólamok zenét tartalmaznak:: * Kontextusok és ábrázolók:: * A sablonok kibővítése:: @end menu @node Hogyan működnek a LilyPond bemeneti fájlok? @section Hogyan működnek a LilyPond bemeneti fájlok? @translationof How LilyPond input files work @translationof How LilyPond input files work A LilyPond bemeneti formátuma meglehetősen rugalmas, így a tapasztalt felhasználóknak nagy szabadságot ad abban, hogyan strukturálják a forrásfájljaikat. Azonban ez a rugalmasság az újdonsült felhasználók számára bonyolult lehet. Ez a szakasz elmagyarázza a struktúra nagy részét, az egyszerűség kedvéért bizonyos részleteket elnagyolva. A bemeneti formátum felépítésének teljes leírása a @ruser{File structure} c. szakaszban olvasható. @menu * Bevezetés a LilyPond fájlok szerkezetébe:: * A kotta egy összetett zenei kifejezés:: * Zenei kifejezések egymásba ágyazása:: * A gerendák és ívek átfedhetik egymást:: @end menu @node Bevezetés a LilyPond fájlok szerkezetébe @subsection Bevezetés a LilyPond fájlok szerkezetébe @translationof Introduction to the LilyPond file structure @translationof Introduction to the LilyPond file structure @c index bemeneti formátum @c index fájlstruktúra A LilyPond bemeneti fájlok szerkezetére egy tipikus példa: @example \version @w{"@version{}"} \header @{ @} \score @{ @var{...összetett zenei kifejezés...} % ide jön a zene! \layout @{ @} \midi @{ @} @} @end example @noindent Ennek az alapvető mintának sok változata lehetséges, de ez a példa jó kiindulási alapot jelent. @funindex \book @funindex book @funindex \score @funindex score @cindex book @cindex score Eddig egyik példa sem használta a @code{\score@{@}} parancsot. Ennek oka, hogy a LilyPond automatikusan hozzáadja az egyszerű bemenethez a szükséges parancsokat. A következő bemenet például: @example \relative c'' @{ c4 a d c @} @end example @noindent a következő rövidítése: @example \book @{ \score @{ \new Staff @{ \new Voice @{ \relative c'' @{ c4 a b c @} @} @} \layout @{ @} @} @} @end example Más szóval, ha a bemenet egyetlen zenei kifejezést tartalmaz, a LilyPond úgy értelmezi a fájlt, mintha a zenei kifejezés körül már szerepelnének a fenti parancsok. @cindex implicit kontextusok @strong{Figyelem!} A dokumentációban sok példa nem tartalmazza a @code{\new Staff} és @code{\new Voice} parancsokat, így azok implicite kerülnek létrehozásra. Ez egyszerű példáknál jól működik, de bonyolultabb esetekben, főleg, ha más parancsokat is használunk, a kontextusok implicit létrehozása meglepő kimenetet eredményezhet, például nemkívánatos kottasorok jelenlétét. A kontextusok explicit megadásának módja a @ref{Kontextusok és ábrázolók} c. részben olvasható. @warning{Többszólamú zeneművek esetén ajánlott explicit módon létrehozni a kottasorokat és az azon belüli szólamokat.} Egyelőre térjünk vissza az első példánkhoz, és vizsgáljuk meg csak a @code{\score} parancsot. A @code{\score} blokkon belül először pontosan egy zenei kifejezésnek kell következnie. Emlékezzünk arra, hogy egy zenei kifejezés lehet egy hang is, de akár egy olyan nagy összetett kifejezés is, mint: @example @{ \new StaffGroup << @var{...egy teljes Wagner-opera zenei anyaga...} >> @} @end example @noindent Mivel mindez egy @code{@{ ... @}} blokkban szerepel, egy zenei kifejezésnek számít. Ahogy korábban láttuk, a @code{\score} blokk a zenén kívül más definíciókat is tartalmazhat, mint például: @example \score @{ @{ c'4 a b c' @} \header @{ @} \layout @{ @} \midi @{ @} @} @end example @funindex \header @funindex header @funindex \layout @funindex layout @funindex \midi @funindex midi @cindex header @cindex layout @cindex midi @noindent Ez a három parancs -- @code{\header}, @code{\layout} és @code{\midi} -- speciális: az eddigi parancsokkal ellentétben @emph{nem} zenei kifejezések, és nem azok részei. A @code{\score} blokkon belül vagy kívül is elhelyezkedhetnek -- például a @code{\header} (fejléc) blokk, melyben a kotta adatait (pl. cím, szerző stb.) lehet megadni, legtöbbször a @code{\score} parancs előtt szerepel, ahogy a szakasz elején található példában is látható. A két további, még ismeretlen parancs: @code{\layout @{@}} és @code{\midi @{@}}. Ezek ebben a formában rendre azt jelentik, hogy a LilyPond kottaképet, ill. hangzó anyagot állítson elő. Teljes leírásuk a Kottaírás Kézikönyvében található, a @ruser{Score layout} és a @ruser{Creating MIDI files} szakaszokban. @cindex több kotta @cindex implicit book blokk @funindex \book @funindex book Egy fájlban több @code{\score} blokk lehet. Mindegyik egy-egy zeneművet vagy tételt jelöl, de ezek egy kimeneti fájlban fognak megjelenni. Nem szükséges @code{\book} blokkba foglalni őket -- ez implicite megtörténik. Ha azonban több kimeneti fájlt szeretnénk kapni egy forrásfájlból, akkor több @code{\book} blokkot kell megadnunk -- kimeneti fájlonként egyet-egyet. Összegezve: Minden @code{\book} blokk külön kimeneti fájlt eredményez (pl. egy-egy PDF állományt). Ha nem szerepel explicit módon a forráskódban, akkor a LilyPond körülveszi az egész forráskódot egy @code{\book} blokkal. Egy @code{\book} blokkon belül minden @code{\score} blokk különálló zenei egységet jelöl. @cindex layout blokk helye Minden @code{\layout} blokk arra a @code{\score} vagy @code{\book} blokkra érvényes, amelyben szerepel -- tehát egy @code{\score} blokkon belüli @code{\layout} blokk csakis arra az egy @code{\score} blokkra vonatkozik, de egy @code{\score} blokkon kívüli @code{\layout} blokk a @code{\score} blokkot tartalmazó (akár explicit, akár implicit) @code{\book} blokkon belüli minden @code{\score} blokkra érvényes. A részletek a @ruser{Multiple scores in a book} c. részben olvashatók. @cindex változók Fájljainkat áttekinthetőbbé tehetjük változók definiálásával (ld. @ref{Művek szervezettebbé tétele változók segítségével}). Minden sablonban ezt a módszert használjuk: @example dallam = \relative c' @{ c4 a b c @} \score @{ \dallam @} @end example Amikor a LilyPond feldolgozza ezt a fájlt, a @code{dallam} változó értékét (azaz mindent az egyenlőségjel utáni zenei kifejezésből) beszúrja mindenhova, ahol @code{\dallam} hivatkozást lát. A változók nevére nincs sok megkötés -- a következők mind helyes példák: @code{dallam}, @code{jobbkéz}, @code{fuvola}, @code{BII} stb. A @ref{Kevesebb gépelés változókkal és függvényekkel} c. szakasz további információkat tartalmaz. Mindössze annyi a korlátozás, hogy a változónevek csak betűket tartalmazhatnak, és nem ütközhetnek a LilyPond parancsok neveivel. A pontos szabályok a @ruser{File structure} c. részben vannak leírva. @seealso A bemeneti formátum teljes definíciója a @ruser{File structure} c. szakaszban található. @node A kotta egy összetett zenei kifejezés @subsection A kotta egy összetett zenei kifejezés @translationof Score is a (single) compound musical expression @translationof Score is a (single) compound musical expression @funindex \score @funindex score @cindex score @cindex összetett zenei kifejezés Az előző szakaszban (@ref{Bevezetés a LilyPond fájlok szerkezetébe}) már láttuk a LilyPond fájlok általános felépítését. De a legfontosabb részt mintha átugrottuk volna: mi kerüljön a @code{\score} blokk belsejébe? Valójában ez sokkal egyszerűbb, mint gondolnánk. Ez a mondat mindent megmagyaráz: @quotation @emph{A @code{\score} blokknak egy összetett zenei kifejezéssel kell kezdődnie.} @end quotation @noindent Az összetett zenei kifejezés fogalmát már tisztáztuk @ref{A zenei kifejezés fogalma} c. részben. Láttuk, hogy építhetünk fel nagy zenei kifejezéseket kis részekből -- először hangokból, aztán akkordokból stb. Most egy összetett zenei kifejezést vizsgálunk meg felülről lefelé. Az egyszerűség kedvéért egy zongorakíséretes dal lesz a példánk. Először is szükségünk van az énekes és a zongorista szólamára. @example \score @{ << \new Staff = "ének" << >> \new PianoStaff = "zongora" << >> >> \layout @{ @} @} @end example Elneveztük a két szólamot @qq{ének} és @qq{zongora} néven. Ez nem kötelező, de jó szokás, hogy első pillantásra lássuk, melyik szólam mire szolgál. Emlékezzünk arra, hogy @code{<< ... >>} szolgál több szólam jelölésére. Ennek hatására az ének- és a zongoraszólam egymás alatt fog megjelenni a kottában. A zongoraszólam két kottasort fog tartalmazni, az énekszólam pedig egy kottasort és egy dalszöveget, így mindkettőhöz @code{<< ... >>} blokk kell. A dalszöveghez az @code{\addlyrics} parancsot fogjuk használni. Ha szükséges feleleveníteni, az @ref{Egyszerű dalok kottázása} c. részben olvashatunk róla. @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right] \score { << \new Staff = "ének" << \new Voice = "dallam" { c'1 } \addlyrics { Szólt } >> \new PianoStaff = "zongora" << \new Staff = "jobbkéz" { c'1 } \new Staff = "balkéz" { c'1 } >> >> \layout { } } @end lilypond Most megvan a teljes struktúra. Az énekszólam egy @code{Voice} kontextust tartalmaz a hangoknak, és egy strófányi dalszöveget. A zongoraszólam pedig a jobb- és balkéz kottasorait tartalmazza. Most elkezdhetjük kitölteni a hangokat. Elkezdhetnénk közvetlenül a Voice kontextus belsejébe beleírni, hogy: @example \relative c'' @{ r4 d8\noBeam g, c4 r @} @end example De ha ezt tennénk, a @code{\score} blokk nagyon bonyolult lenne, és nem lehetne átlátni a szólamok szerkezetét. Így érdemes változókat használni. A dalszöveg változóként való megadására a @code{\lyricmode} parancsot kell használni, hogy a LilyPond dalszövegként és ne hangokként értelmezze a változó tartalmát. (A dalszöveg egy külön beviteli mód, ezekből még több is van, ld. az @ruser{Input modes} c. részt.) Tehát miután definiáltuk a megfelelő változókat, hivatkoztunk rájuk, és basszuskulccsal láttuk el a balkezet, kész egy valódi mű kezdete: @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right] dallam = \relative c'' { r4 d8\noBeam g, c4 r } dalszöveg = \lyricmode { Szólt az Úr, } jobbkéz = \relative c'' { 2~ } balkéz = \relative c { b2 e2 } \score { << \new Staff = "ének" << \new Voice = "dallam" { \dallam } \addlyrics { \dalszöveg } >> \new PianoStaff = "zongora" << \new Staff = "jobbkéz" { \jobbkéz } \new Staff = "balkéz" { \clef "bass" \balkéz } >> >> \layout { } } @end lilypond Amikor a @code{\score} blokkot írjuk vagy olvassuk, mindig lassan, gondosan járjunk el. Haladjunk kívülről befelé, a magas szintű felépítéstől a részletek felé haladva. Nagyban segít, ha ügyelünk a behúzásokra -- minden blokk kezdődjön egy tabulátorral beljebb, így az egy szinten levő blokkok ugyanolyan mértékben lesznek behúzva. @seealso Referencia: @ruser{Structure of a score}. @node Zenei kifejezések egymásba ágyazása @subsection Zenei kifejezések egymásba ágyazása @translationof Nesting music expressions @cindex ideiglenes kottasorok @cindex ossia Ossiák bevitelekor jön jól, hogy kottasorok bármikor, darab közben is kezdődhetnek, és bármikor végződhetnek. Álljon itt erre egy példa: @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right] \new Staff { \relative g' { r4 g8 g c4 c8 d | e4 r8 << { f c c } \new Staff { f8 f c } >> r4 | } } @end lilypond @noindent Figyeljük meg, hogy a kulcs mérete némileg kisebb, mint a sor elején szereplő kulcsé (mint ahogy kulcsváltásnál is). @cindex kottasorok pozíciója Az ossia a kottasor fölött is elhelyezkedhet: @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right] \new Staff = "main" { \relative g' { r4 g8 g c4 c8 d | e4 r8 << { f c c } \new Staff \with { alignAboveContext = #"main" } { f8 f c } >> r4 | } } @end lilypond Ebben a példában a még ismeretlen @code{\with} parancsot használtuk, amelyet később ismertetünk. Most elég annyit tudni róla, hogy a kottasor bizonyos tulajdonságainak módosítására szolgál. Itt egy olyan tulajdonságot adunk meg, ami azt mondja, hogy az új kottasor a @qq{main} nevű kottasor felett helyezkedjen el (ahelyett, hogy alatta helyezkedne el, ami az alapértelmezés). @seealso Az ossiákat általában kulcs és ütemmutató nélkül, valamint kisebb méretben szedjük. Ehhez további új parancsok kellenek; ld. az @ref{Size of objects} és @ruser{Ossia staves} szakaszokat. @node A gerendák és ívek átfedhetik egymást @subsection A gerendák és ívek átfedhetik egymást @translationof On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties @cindex zárójeltípusok @cindex zárójelek egymásba ágyazása Már sok zárójelfajtával találkoztunk a LilyPond fájlok írása közben. Ezekre különböző szabályok vonatkoznak, amelyeket érdemes tisztázni. Ismételjük át ezeket a típusokat. @need 50 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7 @headitem Zárójelfajta @tab Szerep @item @code{@{ .. @}} @tab Egymás után megszólaló hangokat tartalmaz @item @code{< .. >} @tab Egy akkord hangjait tartalmazza @item @code{<< .. >>} @tab Egyszerre megszólaló zenei kifejezéseket tartalmaz @item @code{( .. )} @tab Egy ív kezdetét és végét jelöli @item @code{\( .. \)} @tab Egy frazeálóív kezdetét és végét jelöli @item @code{[ .. ]} @tab Egy kézi gerenda kezdetét és végét jelöli @end multitable A LilyPond világán kívül a különböző fajtájú zárójeleket megfelelően egymásba kell ágyazni, pl. így: @code{<< [ @{ ( .. ) @} ] >>}. Tehát a záró zárójeleknek pontosan fordított sorrendben kell állniuk, mint a nyitó zárójeleknek. A fenti táblázatban szereplő első három típusnál (a blokkoknál) ezt a LilyPond is megköveteli. A többi parancsnál ez nem követelmény. Valójában ezekre nem is úgy érdemes gondolni, mint a zárójelekre, hanem olyan jelzésekre, amelyek zenei elemek kezdetét és végét jelölik. Tehát például egy frazeálóív kezdődhet egy kézzel megadott gerenda előtt, és befejeződhet a gerenda vége előtt -- lehet, hogy nem a legzeneibb megoldás, de lehetséges: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2] { g8\( a b[ c b\) a] } @end lilypond Általánosságban az ívek, frazeálóívek, kötőívek és gerendák átnyúlhatnak a triolák és előkék határain. A következő példában az 1. sorban egy gerenda, a 2. sorban egy kötőív nyúl bele egy triolába, a 3. és 4. sorban pedig mindezek mellett még egy kötőív is található két triola között, valamint egy frazeálóív, amely túlnyúlik a triolán. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right] { r16[ g16 \tuplet 3/2 {r16 e'8] } g16( a \tuplet 3/2 {b d) e' } g8[( a \tuplet 3/2 {b d') e'~]} \tuplet 5/4 {e'32\( a b d' e'} a'4.\) } @end lilypond @node A szólamok zenét tartalmaznak @section A szólamok zenét tartalmaznak @translationof Voices contain music Singers need voices to sing, and so does LilyPond. The actual music for all instruments in a score is contained in Voices -- the most fundamental of all LilyPond's concepts. @menu * Hangzatos szólamok:: * Szólamok kézi létrehozása:: * Szólamok és vokális zene:: @end menu @node Hangzatos szólamok @subsection Hangzatos szólamok @translationof I'm hearing Voices @cindex polyphony @cindex layers @cindex multiple voices @cindex voices, multiple @cindex Voice context @cindex context, Voice @cindex simultaneous music @cindex music, simultaneous @cindex concurrent music @cindex music, concurrent @cindex voices vs. chords @cindex chords vs. voices The lowest, most fundamental or innermost layers in a LilyPond score are called @q{Voice contexts} or just @q{Voices} for short. Voices are sometimes called @q{layers} in other notation packages. In fact, a Voice layer or context is the only one which can contain music. If a Voice context is not explicitly declared one is created automatically, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter. Some instruments such as an Oboe can play only one note at a time. Music written for such instruments is monophonic and requires just a single voice. Instruments which can play more than one note at a time like the piano will often require multiple voices to encode the different concurrent notes and rhythms they are capable of playing. A single voice can contain many notes in a chord, of course, so when exactly are multiple voices needed? Look first at this example of four chords: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=1] \key g \major 4 @end lilypond This can be expressed using just the single angle bracket chord symbols, @code{< ... >}, and for this just a single voice is needed. But suppose the F-sharp were actually an eighth-note followed by an eighth-note G, a passing note on the way to the A? Now we have two notes which start at the same time but have different durations: the quarter-note D and the eighth-note F-sharp. How are these to be coded? They cannot be written as a chord because all the notes in a chord must have the same duration. And they cannot be written as two sequential notes as they need to start at the same time. This is when two voices are required. Let us see how this is done in LilyPond input syntax. @funindex << \\ >> @funindex \\ The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff is to enter each voice as a sequence (with @code{@{...@}}), and combine them simultaneously with angle brackets, @code{<<...>>}. The fragments must also be separated with double backward slashes, @code{\\}, to place them in separate voices. Without these, the notes would be entered into a single voice, which would usually cause errors. This technique is particularly suited to pieces of music which are largely monophonic with occasional short sections of polyphony. Here's how we split the chords above into two voices and add both the passing note and a slur: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2] \key g \major % Voice "1" Voice "2" << { g4 fis8( g) a4 g } \\ { d4 d d d } >> @end lilypond Notice how the stems of the second voice now point down. Here's another simple example: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2] \key d \minor % Voice "1" Voice "2" << { r4 g g4. a8 } \\ { d,2 d4 g } >> << { bes4 bes c bes } \\ { g4 g g8( a) g4 } >> << { a2. r4 } \\ { fis2. s4 } >> @end lilypond It is not necessary to use a separate @code{<< \\ >>} construct for each bar. For music with few notes in each bar this layout can help the legibility of the code, but if there are many notes in each bar it may be better to split out each voice separately, like this: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2] \key d \minor << { % Voice "1" r4 g g4. a8 | bes4 bes c bes | a2. r4 | } \\ { % Voice "2" d,2 d4 g | g4 g g8( a) g4 | fis2. s4 | } >> @end lilypond @cindex voices, naming @cindex voices crossing brackets @cindex slurs crossing brackets @cindex ties crossing brackest This example has just two voices, but the same construct may be used to encode three or more voices by adding more back-slash separators. The Voice contexts bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these contexts, the vertical direction of slurs, stems, ties, dynamics etc., is set appropriately. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment] \new Staff \relative c' { % Main voice c16 d e f % Voice "1" Voice "2" Voice "3" << { g4 f e } \\ { r8 e4 d c8~ } >> << { d2 e2 } \\ { c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 } \\ { s4 b4 c2 } >> } @end lilypond These voices are all separate from the main voice that contains the notes just outside the @code{<< .. >>} construct. Let's call this the @emph{simultaneous construct}. Slurs and ties may only connect notes within the same voice, so slurs and ties cannot go into or out of a simultaneous construct. Conversely, parallel voices from separate simultaneous constructs on the same staff are the same voice. Other voice-related properties also carry across simultaneous constructs. Here is the same example, with different colors and note heads for each voice. Note that changes in one voice do not affect other voices, but they do persist in the same voice later. Note also that tied notes may be split across the same voices in two constructs, shown here in the blue triangle voice. @lilypond[quote,verbatim] \new Staff \relative c' { % Main voice c16 d e f << % Bar 1 { \voiceOneStyle g4 f e } \\ { \voiceTwoStyle r8 e4 d c8~ } >> << % Bar 2 % Voice 1 continues { d2 e2 } \\ % Voice 2 continues { c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2 } \\ { \voiceThreeStyle s4 b4 c2 } >> } @end lilypond @funindex \voiceOneStyle @funindex \voiceTwoStyle @funindex \voiceThreeStyle @funindex \voiceFourStyle @funindex \voiceNeutralStyle The commands @code{\voiceXXXStyle} are mainly intended for use in educational documents such as this one. They modify the color of the note head, the stem and the beams, and the style of the note head, so that the voices may be easily distinguished. Voice one is set to red diamonds, voice two to blue triangles, voice three to green crossed circles, and voice four (not used here) to magenta crosses; @code{\voiceNeutralStyle} (also not used here) reverts the style back to the default. We shall see later how commands like these may be created by the user. See @ref{Visibility and color of objects} and @ref{Using variables for tweaks}. @cindex polyphony and relative note entry @cindex relative note entry and polyphony Polyphony does not change the relationship of notes within a @code{\relative @{ @}} block. Each note is still calculated relative to the note immediately preceding it, or to the first note of the preceding chord. So in @example \relative c' @{ noteA << < noteB noteC > \\ noteD >> noteE @} @end example @noindent @code{noteB} is relative to @code{noteA} @* @code{noteC} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA}; @* @code{noteD} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA} or @code{noteC}; @* @code{noteE} is relative to @code{noteD}, not @code{noteA}. An alternative way, which may be clearer if the notes in the voices are widely separated, is to place a @code{\relative} command at the start of each voice: @example \relative c' @{ noteA ... @} << \relative c'' @{ < noteB noteC > ... @} \\ \relative g' @{ noteD ... @} >> \relative c' @{ noteE ... @} @end example Let us finally analyze the voices in a more complex piece of music. Here are the notes from the first two bars of the second of Chopin's Deux Nocturnes, Op 32. This example will be used at later stages in this and the next chapter to illustrate several techniques for producing notation, so please ignore for now anything in the underlying code which looks mysterious and concentrate just on the music and the voices -- the complications will all be explained in later sections. @c The following should appear as music without code @lilypond[quote,ragged-right] \new Staff \relative c'' { \key aes \major << % Voice one { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\ % Voice two { aes2 f4 fes } \\ % No voice three \\ % Voice four { % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0 2 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0.5 des2 } >> | 1 | } @end lilypond The direction of the stems is often used to indicate the continuity of two simultaneous melodic lines. Here the stems of the highest notes are all pointing up and the stems of the lower notes are all pointing down. This is the first indication that more than one voice is required. But the real need for multiple voices arises when notes which start at the same time have different durations. Look at the notes which start at beat three in the first bar. The A-flat is a dotted quarter note, the F is a quarter note and the D-flat is a half note. These cannot be written as a chord as all the notes in a chord must have the same duration. Neither can they be written as sequential notes, as they must start at the same time. This section of the bar requires three voices, and the normal practice would be to write the whole bar as three voices, as shown below, where we have used different note heads and colors for the three voices. Again, the code behind this example will be explained later, so ignore anything you do not understand. @c The following should appear as music without code @c The three voice styles should be defined in -init @lilypond[quote,ragged-right] \new Staff \relative c'' { \key aes \major << { % Voice one \voiceOneStyle c2 aes4. bes8 } \\ % Voice two { \voiceTwoStyle aes2 f4 fes } \\ % No Voice three (we want stems down) \\ % Voice four { \voiceThreeStyle % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0 2 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0.5 des2 } >> 1 } @end lilypond Let us try to encode this music from scratch. As we shall see, this encounters some difficulties. We begin as we have learnt, using the @code{<< \\ >>} construct to enter the music of the first bar in three voices: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right] \new Staff \relative c'' { \key aes \major << { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\ { aes2 f4 fes } \\ { 2 des2 } >> 1 } @end lilypond @cindex stem down @cindex voices and stem directions @cindex stem directions and voices @cindex stem up The stem directions are automatically assigned with the odd-numbered voices taking upward stems and the even-numbered voices downward ones. The stems for voices 1 and 2 are right, but the stems in voice 3 should go down in this particular piece of music. We can correct this by skipping voice three and placing the music in voice four. This is done by simply adding another pair of @code{\\}. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right] \new Staff \relative c'' { \key aes \major << % Voice one { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\ % Voice two { aes2 f4 fes } \\ % Omit Voice three \\ % Voice four { 2 des2 } >> 1 } @end lilypond @noindent We see that this fixes the stem direction, but exposes a problem sometimes encountered with multiple voices -- the stems of the notes in one voice can collide with the note heads in other voices. In laying out the notes, LilyPond allows the notes or chords from two voices to occupy the same vertical note column provided the stems are in opposite directions, but the notes from the third and fourth voices are displaced, if necessary, to avoid the note heads colliding. This usually works well, but in this example the notes of the lowest voice are clearly not well placed by default. LilyPond provides several ways to adjust the horizontal placing of notes. We are not quite ready yet to see how to correct this, so we shall leave this problem until a later section --- see the @code{force-hshift} property in @ref{Fixing overlapping notation}. @seealso Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}. @node Szólamok kézi létrehozása @subsection Szólamok kézi létrehozása @translationof Explicitly instantiating voices @funindex \voiceOne @funindex voiceOne @funindex \voiceTwo @funindex voiceTwo @funindex \voiceThree @funindex voiceThree @funindex \voiceFour @funindex voiceFour @funindex \oneVoice @funindex oneVoice @funindex \new Voice @cindex voice contexts, creating Voice contexts can also be created manually inside a @code{<< >>} block to create polyphonic music, using @code{\voiceOne} ... @code{\voiceFour} to indicate the required directions of stems, slurs, etc. In longer scores this method is clearer, as it permits the voices to be separated and to be given more descriptive names. Specifically, the construct @code{<< \\ >>} which we used in the previous section: @example \new Staff @{ \relative c' @{ << @{ e4 f g a @} \\ @{ c,4 d e f @} >> @} @} @end example @noindent is equivalent to @example \new Staff << \new Voice = "1" @{ \voiceOne \relative c' @{ e4 f g a @} @} \new Voice = "2" @{ \voiceTwo \relative c' @{ c4 d e f @} @} >> @end example Both of the above would produce @c The following example should not display the code @lilypond[ragged-right,quote] \new Staff << \new Voice = "1" { \voiceOne \relative c' { e4 f g a } } \new Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo \relative c' { c4 d e f } } >> @end lilypond @cindex voices, reverting to single @cindex reverting to a single voice The @code{\voiceXXX} commands set the direction of stems, slurs, ties, articulations, text annotations, augmentation dots of dotted notes, and fingerings. @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceThree} make these objects point upwards, while @code{\voiceTwo} and @code{\voiceFour} make them point downwards. These commands also generate a horizontal shift for each voice when this is required to avoid clashes of note heads. The command @code{\oneVoice} reverts the settings back to the normal values for a single voice. Let us see in some simple examples exactly what effect @code{\oneVoice}, @code{\voiceOne} and @code{voiceTwo} have on markup, ties, slurs, and dynamics: @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim] \relative c'{ % Default behavior or behavior after \oneVoice c d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c } @end lilypond @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim] \relative c'{ \voiceOne c d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c \oneVoice c, d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c } @end lilypond @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim] \relative c'{ \voiceTwo c d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c \oneVoice c, d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c } @end lilypond Now let's look at three different ways to notate the same passage of polyphonic music, each of which is advantageous in different circumstances, using the example from the previous section. An expression that appears directly inside a @code{<< >>} belongs to the main voice (but, note, @strong{not} in a @code{<< \\ >>} construct). This is useful when extra voices appear while the main voice is playing. Here is a more correct rendition of our example. The red diamond-shaped notes demonstrate that the main melody is now in a single voice context, permitting a phrasing slur to be drawn over them. @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim] \new Staff \relative c' { \voiceOneStyle % The following notes are monophonic c16^( d e f % Start simultaneous section of three voices << % Continue the main voice in parallel { g4 f e | d2 e2) | } % Initiate second voice \new Voice { % Set stems, etc., down \voiceTwo r8 e4 d c8~ | c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 | } % Initiate third voice \new Voice { % Set stems, etc, up \voiceThree s2. | s4 b4 c2 | } >> } @end lilypond @cindex nesting music expressions @cindex nesting simultaneous constructs @cindex nesting voices @cindex voices, temporary @cindex voices, nesting More deeply nested polyphony constructs are possible, and if a voice appears only briefly this might be a more natural way to typeset the music: @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim] \new Staff \relative c' { c16^( d e f << { g4 f e | d2 e2) | } \new Voice { \voiceTwo r8 e4 d c8~ << { c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 } \new Voice { \voiceThree s4 b4 c2 } >> } >> } @end lilypond @cindex spacing notes This method of nesting new voices briefly is useful when only small sections of the music are polyphonic, but when the whole staff is largely polyphonic it can be clearer to use multiple voices throughout, using spacing notes to step over sections where the voice is silent, as here: @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim] \new Staff \relative c' << % Initiate first voice \new Voice { \voiceOne c16^( d e f g4 f e | d2 e2) | } % Initiate second voice \new Voice { % Set stems, etc, down \voiceTwo s4 r8 e4 d c8~ | c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 | } % Initiate third voice \new Voice { % Set stems, etc, up \voiceThree s1 | s4 b4 c2 | } >> @end lilypond @subsubheading Note columns @cindex note column @cindex note collisions @cindex collisions, notes @cindex shift commands @funindex \shiftOff @funindex shiftOff @funindex \shiftOn @funindex shiftOn @funindex \shiftOnn @funindex shiftOnn @funindex \shiftOnnn @funindex shiftOnnn Closely spaced notes in a chord, or notes occurring at the same time in different voices, are arranged in two, occasionally more, columns to prevent the note heads overlapping. These are called note columns. There are separate columns for each voice, and the currently specified voice-dependent shift is applied to the note column if there would otherwise be a collision. This can be seen in the example above. In bar 2 the C in voice two is shifted to the right relative to the D in voice one, and in the final chord the C in voice three is also shifted to the right relative to the other notes. The @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, @code{\shiftOnnn}, and @code{\shiftOff} commands specify the degree to which notes and chords of the voice should be shifted if a collision would otherwise occur. By default, the outer voices (normally voices one and two) have @code{\shiftOff} specified, while the inner voices (three and four) have @code{\shiftOn} specified. When a shift is applied, voices one and three are shifted to the right and voices two and four to the left. @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn} define further shift levels which may be specified temporarily to resolve collisions in complex situations -- see @ref{Real music example}. A note column can contain just one note (or chord) from a voice with stems up and one note (or chord) from a voice with stems down. If notes from two voices which have their stems in the same direction are placed at the same position and both voices have no shift or the same shift specified, the error message @qq{Too many clashing note columns} will be produced. @seealso Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}. @node Szólamok és vokális zene @subsection Szólamok és vokális zene @translationof Voices and vocals Vocal music presents a special difficulty: we need to combine two expressions -- notes and lyrics. @funindex \new Lyrics @funindex \lyricsto @funindex lyricsto @funindex Lyrics @cindex Lyrics context, creating @cindex lyrics, linking to voice You have already seen the @code{\addlyrics@{@}} command, which handles simple scores well. However, this technique is quite limited. For more complex music, you must introduce the lyrics in a @code{Lyrics} context using @code{\new Lyrics} and explicitly link the lyrics to the notes with @code{\lyricsto@{@}}, using the name assigned to the Voice. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment] << \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' { \autoBeamOff \time 2/4 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2 } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" { No more let sins and sor -- rows grow. } >> @end lilypond Note that the lyrics must be linked to a @code{Voice} context, @emph{not} a @code{Staff} context. This is a case where it is necessary to create @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts explicitly. @cindex lyrics and beaming @cindex beaming and lyrics @funindex \autoBeamOff @funindex autoBeamOff The automatic beaming which LilyPond uses by default works well for instrumental music, but not so well for music with lyrics, where beaming is either not required at all or is used to indicate melismata in the lyrics. In the example above we use the command @code{\autoBeamOff} to turn off the automatic beaming. @funindex \new ChoirStaff @funindex ChoirStaff @funindex \lyricmode @funindex lyricmode @cindex vocal score structure @cindex choir staff Let us reuse the earlier example from Judas Maccabæus to illustrate this more flexible technique. We first recast it to use variables so the music and lyrics can be separated from the staff structure. We also introduce a ChoirStaff bracket. The lyrics themselves must be introduced with @code{\lyricmode} to ensure they are interpreted as lyrics rather than music. @lilypond[quote,verbatim] global = { \time 6/8 \partial 8 \key f \major} SopOneMusic = \relative c'' { c8 | c([ bes)] a a([ g)] f | f'4. b, | c4.~ c4 | } SopTwoMusic = \relative c' { r8 | r4. r4 c8 | a'([ g)] f f([ e)] d | e([ d)] c bes' | } SopOneLyrics = \lyricmode { Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, __ | } SopTwoLyrics = \lyricmode { Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, | } \score { \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff << \new Voice = "SopOne" { \global \SopOneMusic } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopOne" { \SopOneLyrics } >> \new Staff << \new Voice = "SopTwo" { \global \SopTwoMusic } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopTwo" { \SopTwoLyrics } >> >> } @end lilypond This is the basic structure of all vocal scores. More staves may be added as required, more voices may be added to the staves, more verses may be added to the lyrics, and the variables containing the music can easily be placed in separate files should they become too long. @cindex hymn structure @cindex SATB structure @cindex vocal scores with multiple verses @cindex multiple vocal verses @cindex verses, multiple vocal Here is an example of the first line of a hymn with four verses, set for SATB. In this case the words for all four parts are the same. Note how we use variables to separate the music notation and words from the staff structure. See too how a variable, which we have chosen to call @q{TimeKey}, is used to hold several commands for use within the two staves. In other examples this is often called @q{global}. @lilypond[quote,verbatim] TimeKey = { \time 4/4 \partial 4 \key c \major} SopMusic = \relative c' { c4 | e4. e8 g4 g | a a g | } AltoMusic = \relative c' { c4 | c4. c8 e4 e | f f e | } TenorMusic = \relative c { e4 | g4. g8 c4. b8 | a8 b c d e4 | } BassMusic = \relative c { c4 | c4. c8 c4 c | f8 g a b c4 | } VerseOne = \lyricmode { E -- | ter -- nal fa -- ther, | strong to save, | } VerseTwo = \lyricmode { O | Christ, whose voice the | wa -- ters heard, | } VerseThree = \lyricmode { O | Ho -- ly Spi -- rit, | who didst brood | } VerseFour = \lyricmode { O | Tri -- ni -- ty of | love and pow'r | } \score { \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff << \clef "treble" \new Voice = "Sop" { \voiceOne \TimeKey \SopMusic } \new Voice = "Alto" { \voiceTwo \AltoMusic } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseOne } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseTwo } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseThree } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseFour } >> \new Staff << \clef "bass" \new Voice = "Tenor" { \voiceOne \TimeKey \TenorMusic } \new Voice = "Bass" { \voiceTwo \BassMusic } >> >> } @end lilypond @cindex verse and refrain We end with an example to show how we might code a solo verse which continues into a two-part refrain in two staves. The positioning of the sequential and simultaneous sections to achieve this within a single score is quite tricky, so follow the explanation carefully! Let's start with a score block containing a @code{ChoirStaff}, as we would like the brace to appear at the start of the chorus. Normally you would need angle brackets after @code{\new ChoirStaff} to bring in all the staves in parallel, but here we want to defer the parallelism during the solo so we use braces, although angle brackets here wouldn't hurt. Inside the @code{ChoirStaff} we want first the staff which will contain the verse. This must contain notes and lyrics in parallel, so here we need angle brackets around the @code{\new Voice} and @code{\new Lyrics} to start them at the same time: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] versenotes = \relative c'' { \clef "treble" \key g \major \time 3/4 g g g | b b b | } versewords = \lyricmode { One two three four five six } \score { \new ChoirStaff { \new Staff << \new Voice = "verse" { \versenotes \break } \new Lyrics \lyricsto verse { \versewords } >> } } @end lilypond That gives the verse line. Now we want to continue with refrainA on the same staff while a second staff is introduced in parallel with it for refrainB, so this is a parallel section which must be positioned immediately following the @code{\break} in the verse Voice. Yes, @emph{within} the verse Voice! Here's that parallel section. More staves could be introduced here in the same way. @example << \refrainnotesA \new Lyrics \lyricsto verse @{ \refrainwordsA @} \new Staff << \new Voice = "refrainB" @{ \refrainnotesB @} \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" @{ \refrainwordsB @} >> >> @end example Here's the final result with two staves in the chorus showing how the parallel section is positioned within the verse Voice: @lilypond[quote,verbatim, ragged-right] versenotes = \relative c'' { \clef "treble" \key g \major \time 3/4 g g g | b b b | } refrainnotesA = \relative c'' { \time 2/4 c c | g g \bar "|." } refrainnotesB = \relative c { \clef "bass" \key g \major c e | d d | } versewords = \lyricmode { One two three four five six } refrainwordsA = \lyricmode { la la la la } refrainwordsB = \lyricmode { dum dum dum dum } \score { \new ChoirStaff { \new Staff << \new Voice = "verse" { \versenotes \break << \refrainnotesA \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" { \refrainwordsA } \new Staff << \new Voice = "refrainB" { \refrainnotesB } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" { \refrainwordsB } >> >> } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" { \versewords } >> } } @end lilypond @cindex book, example of using @funindex \book @funindex book However, although this is an interesting and useful exercise to help you to understand how sequential and simultaneous blocks work, in practice one would perhaps choose to code this as two @code{\score} blocks within an implicit @code{\book} block, as follows: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] versenotes = \relative c'' { \clef "treble" \key g \major \time 3/4 g g g | b b b | } refrainnotesA = \relative c'' { \time 2/4 c c | g g \bar "|." } refrainnotesB = \relative c { \clef "bass" \key g \major c e | d d | } versewords = \lyricmode { One two three four five six } refrainwordsA = \lyricmode { la la la la } refrainwordsB = \lyricmode { dum dum dum dum } \score { \new Staff << \new Voice = "verse" { \versenotes } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" { \versewords } >> } \score { \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff << \new Voice = "refrainA" { \refrainnotesA } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainA" { \refrainwordsA } >> \new Staff << \new Voice = "refrainB" { \refrainnotesB } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" { \refrainwordsB } >> >> } @end lilypond @seealso Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}. @node Kontextusok és ábrázolók @section Kontextusok és ábrázolók @translationof Contexts and engravers Kontextusok és ábrázolók have been mentioned informally in earlier sections; we now must look at these concepts in more detail, as they are important in the fine-tuning of LilyPond output. @menu * A kontextus fogalma:: * Kontextusok létrehozása:: * Az ábrázoló fogalma:: * Kontextusok tulajdonságainak módosítása:: * Ábrázolók hozzáadása és eltávolítása:: @end menu @node A kontextus fogalma @subsection A kontextus fogalma @translationof Contexts explained @cindex contexts explained When music is printed, many notational elements which do not appear explicitly in the input file must be added to the output. For example, compare the input and output of the following example: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment] cis4 cis2. g4 @end lilypond The input is rather sparse, but in the output, bar lines, accidentals, clef, and time signature have been added. When LilyPond @emph{interprets} the input the musical information is parsed from left to right, similar to the way a performer reads the score. While reading the input, the program remembers where measure boundaries are, and which pitches require explicit accidentals. This information must be held on several levels. For example, an accidental affects only a single staff, while a bar line must be synchronized across the entire score. Within LilyPond, these rules and bits of information are grouped in @emph{Contexts}. We have already introduced the @code{Voice} context. Others are the @code{Staff} and @code{Score} contexts. Contexts are hierarchical to reflect the hierarchical nature of a musical score. For example: a @code{Staff} context can contain many @code{Voice} contexts, and a @code{Score} context can contain many @code{Staff} contexts. @quotation @sourceimage{context-example,5cm,,} @end quotation Each context has the responsibility for enforcing some notation rules, creating some notation objects and maintaining the associated properties. For example, the @code{Voice} context may introduce an accidental and then the @code{Staff} context maintains the rule to show or suppress the accidental for the remainder of the measure. As another example, the synchronization of bar lines is, by default, handled in the @code{Score} context. However, in some music we may not want the bar lines to be synchronized -- consider a polymetric score in 4/4 and 3/4 time. In such cases, we must modify the default settings of the @code{Score} and @code{Staff} contexts. For very simple scores, contexts are created implicitly, and you need not be aware of them. For larger pieces, such as anything with more than one staff, they must be created explicitly to make sure that you get as many staves as you need, and that they are in the correct order. For typesetting pieces with specialized notation, it is usual to modify existing, or even to define totally new, contexts. In addition to the @code{Score,} @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts there are contexts which fit between the score and staff levels to control staff groups, such as the @code{PianoStaff} and @code{ChoirStaff} contexts. There are also alternative staff and voice contexts, and contexts for lyrics, percussion, fret boards, figured bass, etc. The names of all context types are formed from one or more words, each word being capitalized and joined immediately to the preceding word with no hyphen or underscore, e.g., @code{GregorianTranscriptionStaff}. @seealso Notation Reference: @ruser{A kontextus fogalma}. @node Kontextusok létrehozása @subsection Kontextusok létrehozása @translationof Creating contexts @funindex \new @funindex new @cindex new contexts @cindex creating contexts @cindex contexts, creating In an input file a score block, introduced with a @code{\score} command, contains a single music expression and an associated output definition (either a @code{\layout} or a @code{\midi} block). The @code{Score} context is usually left to be created automatically when the interpretation of that music expression starts. For scores with only one voice and one staff, the @code{Voice} and @code{Staff} contexts may also be left to be created automatically, but for more complex scores it is necessary to create them by hand. The simplest command that does this is @code{\new}. It is prepended to a music expression, for example @example \new @var{type} @var{music-expression} @end example @noindent where @var{type} is a context name (like @code{Staff} or @code{Voice}). This command creates a new context, and starts interpreting the @var{music-expression} within that context. (Note that a @code{\new Score} command is not normally required, as the essential top-level @code{Score} context is created automatically when the music expression within the @code{\score} block is interpreted. The only reason for creating a @code{Score} context explicitly using @code{\new Score} is to introduce a @code{\with} block in which one or more score-wide default values of context properties may be specified. Information on using @code{\with} blocks can be found under the heading @qq{Setting context properties with @code{\\with} } in @ref{Kontextusok tulajdonságainak módosítása}.) You have seen many practical examples which created new @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts in earlier sections, but to remind you how these commands are used in practice, here's an annotated real-music example: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] \score { % start of single compound music expression << % start of simultaneous staves section \time 2/4 \new Staff { % create RH staff \key g \minor \clef "treble" \new Voice { % create voice for RH notes \relative c'' { % start of RH notes d4 ees16 c8. d4 ees16 c8. } % end of RH notes } % end of RH voice } % end of RH staff \new Staff << % create LH staff; needs two simultaneous voices \key g \minor \clef "bass" \new Voice { % create LH voice one \voiceOne \relative g { % start of LH voice one notes g8 ees, g8 ees, } % end of LH voice one notes } % end of LH voice one \new Voice { % create LH voice two \voiceTwo \relative g { % start of LH voice two notes g4 ees g4 ees } % end of LH voice two notes } % end of LH voice two >> % end of LH staff >> % end of simultaneous staves section } % end of single compound music expression @end lilypond (Note how all the statements which open a block with either a curly bracket, @code{@{}, or double angle brackets, @code{<<}, are indented by two further spaces, and the corresponding closing bracket is indented by exactly the same amount. While this is not required, following this practice will greatly reduce the number of @q{unmatched bracket} errors, and is strongly recommended. It enables the structure of the music to be seen at a glance, and any unmatched brackets will be obvious. Note too how the LH staff is created using double angle brackets because it requires two voices for its music, whereas the RH staff is created with a single music expression surrounded by curly brackets because it requires only one voice.) @cindex contexts, naming @cindex naming contexts The @code{\new} command may also give an identifying name to the context to distinguish it from other contexts of the same type, @example \new @var{type} = @var{id} @var{music-expression} @end example Note the distinction between the name of the context type, @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}, etc, and the identifying name of a particular instance of that type, which can be any sequence of letters invented by the user. Digits and spaces can also be used in the identifying name, but then it has to be placed in quotes, i.e. @code{\new Staff = "MyStaff 1" @var{music-expression}}. The identifying name is used to refer back to that particular instance of a context. We saw this in use in the section on lyrics, see @ref{Szólamok és vokális zene}. @seealso Notation Reference: @ruser{Kontextusok létrehozása}. @node Az ábrázoló fogalma @subsection Az ábrázoló fogalma @translationof Engravers explained @cindex engravers Every mark on the printed output of a score produced by LilyPond is produced by an @code{Engraver}. Thus there is an engraver to print staves, one to print note heads, one for stems, one for beams, etc, etc. In total there are over 120 such engravers! Fortunately, for most scores it is not necessary to know about more than a few, and for simple scores you do not need to know about any. Engravers live and operate in Contexts. Engravers such as the @code{Metronome_mark_engraver}, whose action and output apply to the score as a whole, operate in the highest level context -- the @code{Score} context. The @code{Clef_engraver} and @code{Key_engraver} are to be found in every @code{Staff} Context, as different staves may require different clefs and keys. The @code{Note_heads_engraver} and @code{Stem_engraver} live in every @code{Voice} context, the lowest level context of all. Each engraver processes the particular objects associated with its function, and maintains the properties that relate to that function. These properties, like the properties associated with contexts, may be modified to change the operation of the engraver or the appearance of those elements in the printed score. Engravers all have compound names formed from words which describe their function. Just the first word is capitalized, and the remainder are joined to it with underscores. Thus the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver} is responsible for creating the lines of the staff, the @code{Clef_engraver} determines and sets the pitch reference point on the staff by drawing a clef symbol. Here are some of the most common engravers together with their function. You will see it is usually easy to guess the function from the name, or vice versa. @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7 @headitem Engraver @tab Function @item Accidental_engraver @tab Makes accidentals, cautionary and suggested accidentals @item Beam_engraver @tab Engraves beams @item Clef_engraver @tab Engraves clefs @item Completion_heads_engraver @tab Splits notes which cross bar lines @item Dynamic_engraver @tab Creates hairpins and dynamic texts @item Forbid_line_break_engraver @tab Prevents line breaks if a musical element is still active @item Key_engraver @tab Creates the key signature @item Metronome_mark_engraver @tab Engraves metronome marking @item Note_heads_engraver @tab Engraves note heads @item Rest_engraver @tab Engraves rests @item Staff_symbol_engraver @tab Engraves the five (by default) lines of the staff @item Stem_engraver @tab Creates stems and single-stem tremolos @item Time_signature_engraver @tab Creates time signatures @end multitable @smallspace We shall see later how the output of LilyPond can be changed by modifying the action of Engravers. @seealso Internals reference: @rinternals{Engravers and Performers}. @node Kontextusok tulajdonságainak módosítása @subsection Kontextusok tulajdonságainak módosítása @translationof Modifying context properties @cindex context properties @cindex context properties, modifying @cindex modifying context properties @funindex \set @funindex set @funindex \unset @funindex unset Contexts are responsible for holding the values of a number of context @emph{properties}. Many of them can be changed to influence the interpretation of the input and so change the appearance of the output. They are changed by the @code{\set} command. This takes the form @example \set @emph{ContextName}.@emph{propertyName} = #@emph{value} @end example Where the @emph{ContextName} is usually @code{Score}, @code{Staff} or @code{Voice}. It may be omitted, in which case the current context (typically @code{Voice}) is assumed. The names of context properties consist of words joined together with no hyphens or underscores, all except the first having a capital letter. Here are a few examples of some commonly used ones. There are many more. @c attempt to force this onto a new page @need 50 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .15 .45 .15 @headitem propertyName @tab Type @tab Function @tab Example Value @item extraNatural @tab Boolean @tab If true, set extra natural signs before accidentals @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f} @item currentBarNumber @tab Integer @tab Set the current bar number @tab @code{50} @item doubleSlurs @tab Boolean @tab If true, print slurs both above and below notes @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f} @item instrumentName @tab Text @tab Set the name to be placed at the start of the staff @tab @code{"Cello I"} @item fontSize @tab Real @tab Increase or decrease the font size @tab @code{2.4} @item stanza @tab Text @tab Set the text to print before the start of a verse @tab @code{"2"} @end multitable @noindent where a Boolean is either True (@code{#t}) or False (@code{#f}), an Integer is a positive whole number, a Real is a positive or negative decimal number, and text is enclosed in double apostrophes. Note the occurrence of hash signs, (@code{#}), in two different places -- as part of the Boolean value before the @code{t} or @code{f}, and before @emph{value} in the @code{\set} statement. So when a Boolean is being entered you need to code two hash signs, e.g., @code{##t}. @cindex properties operating in contexts @cindex setting properties within contexts Before we can set any of these properties we need to know in which context they operate. Sometimes this is obvious, but occasionally it can be tricky. If the wrong context is specified, no error message is produced, but the expected action will not take place. For example, the @code{instrumentName} clearly lives in the @code{Staff} context, since it is the staff that is to be named. In this example the first staff is labeled, but not the second, because we omitted the context name. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] << \new Staff \relative c'' { \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano" c4 c } \new Staff \relative c' { \set instrumentName = #"Alto" % Wrong! d4 d } >> @end lilypond Remember the default context name is @code{Voice}, so the second @code{\set} command set the property @code{instrumentName} in the @code{Voice} context to @qq{Alto}, but as LilyPond does not look for any such property in the @code{Voice} context, no further action took place. This is not an error, and no error message is logged in the log file. Similarly, if the property name is mis-spelt no error message is produced, and clearly the expected action cannot be performed. In fact, you can set any (fictitious) @q{property} using any name you like in any context that exists by using the @code{\set} command. But if the name is not known to LilyPond it will not cause any action to be taken. Some text editors with special support for LilyPond input files document property names with bullets when you hover them with the mouse, like JEdit with LilyPondTool, or highlight unknown property names differently, like ConTEXT. If you do not use an editor with such features, it is recommended to check the property name in the Internals Reference: see @rinternals{Tunable context properties}, or @rinternals{Contexts}. The @code{instrumentName} property will take effect only if it is set in the @code{Staff} context, but some properties can be set in more than one context. For example, the property @code{extraNatural} is by default set to ##t (true) for all staves. If it is set to ##f (false) in one particular @code{Staff} context it applies just to the accidentals on that staff. If it is set to false in the @code{Score} context it applies to all staves. So this turns off extra naturals in one staff: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] << \new Staff \relative c'' { ais4 aes } \new Staff \relative c'' { \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f ais4 aes } >> @end lilypond @noindent and this turns them off in all staves: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] << \new Staff \relative c'' { ais4 aes } \new Staff \relative c'' { \set Score.extraNatural = ##f ais4 aes } >> @end lilypond As another example, if @code{clefTransposition} is set in the @code{Score} context this immediately changes the value of the octavation in all current staves and sets a new default value which will be applied to all staves. The opposite command, @code{\unset}, effectively removes the property from the context, which causes most properties to revert to their default value. Usually @code{\unset} is not required as a new @code{\set} command will achieve what is wanted. The @code{\set} and @code{\unset} commands can appear anywhere in the input file and will take effect from the time they are encountered until the end of the score or until the property is @code{\set} or @code{\unset} again. Let's try changing the font size, which affects the size of the note heads (among other things) several times. The change is from the default value, not the most recently set value. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1,fragment] c4 % make note heads smaller \set fontSize = #-4 d e % make note heads larger \set fontSize = #2.5 f g % return to default size \unset fontSize a b @end lilypond We have now seen how to set the values of several different types of property. Note that integers and numbers are always preceded by a hash sign, @code{#}, while a true or false value is specified by @code{##t} and @code{##f}, with two hash signs. A text property should be enclosed in double quotation signs, as above, although we shall see later that text can actually be specified in a much more general way by using the very powerful @code{\markup} command. @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\with} @funindex \with @funindex with @cindex context properties, setting with \with The default value of context properties may be set at the time the context is created. Sometimes this is a clearer way of setting a property value if it is to remain fixed for the duration of the context. When a context is created with a @code{\new} command it may be followed immediately by a @code{\with @{ .. @}} block in which the default property values are set. For example, if we wish to suppress the printing of extra naturals for the duration of a staff we would write: @example \new Staff \with @{ extraNatural = ##f @} @end example @noindent like this: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] << \new Staff \relative c'' { gis ges aes ais } \new Staff \with { extraNatural = ##f } \relative c'' { gis ges aes ais } >> @end lilypond Or, if the property override is to be applied to all staves within the score, it may be appended to an explicit @code{\new Score} command, like this: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] \score { \new Score \with { extraNatural = ##f } << \new Staff { \relative c'' { gis ges aes ais } } \new Staff { \relative c'' { gis ges aes ais } } >> } @end lilypond Properties set in this way may still be changed dynamically using @code{\set} and returned to the default value set in the @code{\with} block with @code{\unset}. @cindex fontSize, default and setting So if the @code{fontSize} property is set in a @code{\with} clause it sets the default value of the font size. If it is later changed with @code{\set}, this new default value may be restored with the @code{\unset fontSize} command. @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\context} @cindex context properties, setting with \context @funindex \context @funindex context The values of context properties may be set in @emph{all} contexts of a particular type, such as all @code{Staff} contexts, with a single command. The context type is identified by using its type name, like @code{Staff}, prefixed by a back-slash: @code{\Staff}. The statement which sets the property value is the same as that in a @code{\with} block, introduced above. It is placed in a @code{\context} block within a @code{\layout} block. Each @code{\context} block will affect all contexts of the type specified throughout the @code{\score} or @code{\book} block in which the @code{\layout} block appears. Here is a example to show the format: @lilypond[verbatim,quote] \score { \new Staff { \relative c'' { cis4 e d ces } } \layout { \context { \Staff extraNatural = ##t } } } @end lilypond @noindent Context properties set in this way may be overridden for particular instances of contexts by statements in a @code{\with} block, and by @code{\set} commands embedded in music statements. @seealso Notation Reference: @ruser{Changing context default settings}. @ruser{The set command}. Internals Reference: @rinternals{Contexts}, @rinternals{Tunable context properties}. @node Ábrázolók hozzáadása és eltávolítása @subsection Ábrázolók hozzáadása és eltávolítása @translationof Adding and removing engravers @cindex engravers, adding @cindex adding engravers @cindex engravers, removing @cindex removing engravers @funindex \consists @funindex consists @funindex \remove @funindex remove We have seen that contexts each contain several engravers, each of which is responsible for producing a particular part of the output, like bar lines, staves, note heads, stems, etc. If an engraver is removed from a context, it can no longer produce its output. This is a crude way of modifying the output, but it can sometimes be useful. @subsubheading Changing a single context To remove an engraver from a single context we use the @code{\with} command placed immediately after the context creation command, as in the previous section. As an illustration, let's repeat an example from the previous section with the staff lines removed. Remember that the staff lines are produced by the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] \new Staff \with { \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver" } \relative c' { c4 \set fontSize = #-4 % make note heads smaller d e \set fontSize = #2.5 % make note heads larger f g \unset fontSize % return to default size a b } @end lilypond @cindex ambitus engraver Engravers can also be added to individual contexts. The command to do this is @code{\consists @var{Engraver_name}}, @noindent placed inside a @code{\with} block. Some vocal scores have an ambitus placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the range of notes in that staff -- see @rglos{ambitus}. The ambitus is produced by the @code{Ambitus_engraver}, which is not normally included in any context. If we add it to the @code{Voice} context, it calculates the range from that voice only: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] \new Staff << \new Voice \with { \consists "Ambitus_engraver" } \relative c'' { \voiceOne c a b g } \new Voice \relative c' { \voiceTwo c e d f } >> @end lilypond @noindent but if we add the ambitus engraver to the @code{Staff} context, it calculates the range from all the notes in all the voices on that staff: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] \new Staff \with { \consists "Ambitus_engraver" } << \new Voice \relative c'' { \voiceOne c a b g } \new Voice \relative c' { \voiceTwo c e d f } >> @end lilypond @subsubheading Changing all contexts of the same type @funindex \layout @funindex layout The examples above show how to remove or add engravers to individual contexts. It is also possible to remove or add engravers to every context of a specific type by placing the commands in the appropriate context in a @code{\layout} block. For example, if we wanted to show an ambitus for every staff in a four-staff score, we could write @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] \score { << \new Staff << \relative c'' { c a b g } >> \new Staff << \relative c' { c a b g } >> \new Staff << \clef "G_8" \relative c' { c a b g } >> \new Staff << \clef "bass" \relative c { c a b g } >> >> \layout { \context { \Staff \consists "Ambitus_engraver" } } } @end lilypond @noindent The values of context properties may also be set for all contexts of a particular type by including the @code{\set} command in a @code{\context} block in the same way. @seealso Notation Reference: @ruser{Modifying context plug-ins}, @ruser{Changing context default settings}. @node A sablonok kibővítése @section A sablonok kibővítése @translationof Extending the templates You've read the tutorial, you know how to write music, you understand the fundamental concepts. But how can you get the staves that you want? Well, you can find lots of templates (see @ref{Templates}) which may give you a start. But what if you want something that isn't covered there? Read on. @menu * Szoprán és cselló:: * Négyszólamú vegyeskar:: * Kotta létrehozása az alapoktól:: * Kevesebb gépelés változókkal és függvényekkel:: * Partitúra és szólamkották:: @end menu @node Szoprán és cselló @subsection Szoprán és cselló @translationof Soprano and cello @cindex template, modifying @cindex modifying templates Start off with the template that seems closest to what you want to end up with. Let's say that you want to write something for soprano and cello. In this case, we would start with the @q{Notes and lyrics} template (for the soprano part). @example \version @w{"@version{}"} melody = \relative c' @{ \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4 a4 b c d @} text = \lyricmode @{ Aaa Bee Cee Dee @} \score @{ << \new Voice = "one" @{ \autoBeamOff \melody @} \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text >> \layout @{ @} \midi @{ @} @} @end example Now we want to add a cello part. Let's look at the @q{Notes only} example: @example \version @w{"@version{}"} melody = \relative c' @{ \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4 a4 b c d @} \score @{ \new Staff \melody \layout @{ @} \midi @{ @} @} @end example We don't need two @code{\version} commands. We'll need the @code{melody} section. We don't want two @code{\score} sections -- if we had two @code{\score}s, we'd get the two parts separately. We want them together, as a duet. Within the @code{\score} section, we don't need two @code{\layout} or @code{\midi}. If we simply cut and paste the @code{melody} section, we would end up with two @code{melody} definitions. This would not generate an error, but the second one would be used for both melodies. So let's rename them to make them distinct. We'll call the section for the soprano @code{sopranoMusic} and the section for the cello @code{celloMusic}. While we're doing this, let's rename @code{text} to be @code{sopranoLyrics}. Remember to rename both instances of all these names -- both the initial definition (the @code{melody = \relative c' @{ } part) and the name's use (in the @code{\score} section). While we're doing this, let's change the cello part's staff -- celli normally use bass clef. We'll also give the cello some different notes. @example \version @w{"@version{}"} sopranoMusic = \relative c' @{ \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4 a4 b c d @} sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode @{ Aaa Bee Cee Dee @} celloMusic = \relative c @{ \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4 d4 g fis8 e d4 @} \score @{ << \new Voice = "one" @{ \autoBeamOff \sopranoMusic @} \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics >> \layout @{ @} \midi @{ @} @} @end example This is looking promising, but the cello part won't appear in the score -- we haven't used it in the @code{\score} section. If we want the cello part to appear under the soprano part, we need to add @example \new Staff \celloMusic @end example @noindent underneath the soprano stuff. We also need to add @code{<<} and @code{>>} around the music -- that tells LilyPond that there's more than one thing (in this case, two @code{Staves}) happening at once. The @code{\score} looks like this now: @c Indentation in this example is deliberately poor @example \score @{ << << \new Voice = "one" @{ \autoBeamOff \sopranoMusic @} \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics >> \new Staff \celloMusic >> \layout @{ @} \midi @{ @} @} @end example @noindent This looks a bit messy; the indentation is messed up now. That is easily fixed. Here's the complete soprano and cello template. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion] sopranoMusic = \relative c' { \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4 a4 b c d } sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode { Aaa Bee Cee Dee } celloMusic = \relative c { \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4 d4 g fis8 e d4 } \score { << << \new Voice = "one" { \autoBeamOff \sopranoMusic } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics >> \new Staff \celloMusic >> \layout { } \midi { } } @end lilypond @seealso The starting templates can be found in the @q{Templates} appendix, see @ref{Single staff}. @node Négyszólamú vegyeskar @subsection Négyszólamú vegyeskar @translationof Four-part SATB vocal score @cindex template, SATB @cindex SATB template Most vocal scores of music written for four-part mixed choir with orchestral accompaniment such as Mendelssohn's Elijah or Handel's Messiah have the choral music and words on four staves, one for each of SATB, with a piano reduction of the orchestral accompaniment underneath. Here's an example from Handel's Messiah: @c The following should appear as music without code @lilypond[quote,ragged-right] global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 } sopranoMusic = \relative c'' { \clef "treble" r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 | } sopranoWords = \lyricmode { Wor -- thy is the lamb that was slain } altoMusic = \relative a' { \clef "treble" r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis e2 | } altoWords = \sopranoWords tenorMusic = \relative c' { \clef "G_8" r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 | } tenorWords = \sopranoWords bassMusic = \relative c' { \clef "bass" r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 | } bassWords = \sopranoWords upper = \relative a' { \clef "treble" \global r4 2 4 4. 8 2 4 2 } lower = \relative c, { \clef "bass" \global 4 2 4 4. 8 2 4 2 } \score { << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff = "sopranos" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano" \new Voice = "sopranos" { \global \sopranoMusic } >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" { \sopranoWords } \new Staff = "altos" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto" \new Voice = "altos" { \global \altoMusic } >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords } \new Staff = "tenors" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor" \new Voice = "tenors" { \global \tenorMusic } >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords } \new Staff = "basses" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass" \new Voice = "basses" { \global \bassMusic } >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" { \bassWords } >> % end ChoirStaff \new PianoStaff << \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano" \new Staff = "upper" \upper \new Staff = "lower" \lower >> >> } @end lilypond None of the templates provides this layout exactly. The nearest is @q{SATB vocal score and automatic piano reduction} -- see @ref{Vocal ensembles} -- but we need to change the layout and add a piano accompaniment which is not derived automatically from the vocal parts. The variables holding the music and words for the vocal parts are fine, but we shall need to add variables for the piano reduction. The order in which the contexts appear in the ChoirStaff of the template do not correspond with the order in the vocal score shown above. We need to rearrange them so there are four staves with the words written directly underneath the notes for each part. All the voices should be @code{\voiceOne}, which is the default, so the @code{\voiceXXX} commands should be removed. We also need to specify the tenor clef for the tenors. The way in which lyrics are specified in the template has not yet been encountered so we need to use the method with which we are familiar. We should also add the names of each staff. Doing this gives for our ChoirStaff: @example \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff = "sopranos" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano" \new Voice = "sopranos" @{ \global \sopranoMusic @} >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{ \sopranoWords @} \new Staff = "altos" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto" \new Voice = "altos" @{ \global \altoMusic @} >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{ \altoWords @} \new Staff = "tenors" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor" \new Voice = "tenors" @{ \global \tenorMusic @} >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{ \tenorWords @} \new Staff = "basses" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass" \new Voice = "basses" @{ \global \bassMusic @} >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{ \bassWords @} >> % end ChoirStaff @end example Next we must work out the piano part. This is easy - we just pull out the piano part from the @q{Solo piano} template: @example \new PianoStaff << \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano " \new Staff = "upper" \upper \new Staff = "lower" \lower >> @end example and add the variable definitions for @code{upper} and @code{lower}. The ChoirStaff and PianoStaff must be combined using angle brackets as we want them to be stacked one above the other: @example << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff one above the other \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff = "sopranos" << \new Voice = "sopranos" @{ \global \sopranoMusic @} >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{ \sopranoWords @} \new Staff = "altos" << \new Voice = "altos" @{ \global \altoMusic @} >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{ \altoWords @} \new Staff = "tenors" << \clef "G_8" % tenor clef \new Voice = "tenors" @{ \global \tenorMusic @} >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{ \tenorWords @} \new Staff = "basses" << \clef "bass" \new Voice = "basses" @{ \global \bassMusic @} >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{ \bassWords @} >> % end ChoirStaff \new PianoStaff << \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano" \new Staff = "upper" \upper \new Staff = "lower" \lower >> >> @end example Combining all these together and adding the music for the three bars of the example above gives: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion] global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 } sopranoMusic = \relative c'' { \clef "treble" r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 | } sopranoWords = \lyricmode { Wor -- thy is the lamb that was slain } altoMusic = \relative a' { \clef "treble" r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis fis2 | } altoWords = \sopranoWords tenorMusic = \relative c' { \clef "G_8" r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 | } tenorWords = \sopranoWords bassMusic = \relative c' { \clef "bass" r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 | } bassWords = \sopranoWords upper = \relative a' { \clef "treble" \global r4 2 4 4. 8 2 4 2 } lower = \relative c, { \clef "bass" \global 4 2 4 4. 8 2 4 2 } \score { << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff = "sopranos" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano" \new Voice = "sopranos" { \global \sopranoMusic } >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" { \sopranoWords } \new Staff = "altos" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto" \new Voice = "altos" { \global \altoMusic } >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords } \new Staff = "tenors" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor" \new Voice = "tenors" { \global \tenorMusic } >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords } \new Staff = "basses" << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass" \new Voice = "basses" { \global \bassMusic } >> \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" { \bassWords } >> % end ChoirStaff \new PianoStaff << \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano " \new Staff = "upper" \upper \new Staff = "lower" \lower >> >> } @end lilypond @node Kotta létrehozása az alapoktól @subsection Kotta létrehozása az alapoktól @translationof Building a score from scratch @cindex template, writing your own @cindex example of writing a score @cindex writing a score, example @cindex score, example of writing After gaining some facility with writing LilyPond code, you may find that it is easier to build a score from scratch rather than modifying one of the templates. You can also develop your own style this way to suit the sort of music you like. Let's see how to put together the score for an organ prelude as an example. We begin with a header section. Here go the title, name of composer, etc, then come any variable definitions, and finally the score block. Let's start with these in outline and fill in the details later. We'll use the first two bars of Bach's prelude based on @emph{Jesu, meine Freude} which is written for two manuals and pedal organ. You can see these two bars of music at the bottom of this section. The top manual part has two voices, the lower and pedal organ one each. So we need four music definitions and one to define the time signature and key: @example \version @w{"@version{}"} \header @{ title = "Jesu, meine Freude" composer = "J S Bach" @} TimeKey = @{ \time 4/4 \key c \minor @} ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = @{ s1 @} ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = @{ s1 @} ManualTwoMusic = @{ s1 @} PedalOrganMusic = @{ s1 @} \score @{ @} @end example For now we've just used a spacer note, @code{s1}, instead of the real music. We'll add that later. Next let's see what should go in the score block. We simply mirror the staff structure we want. Organ music is usually written on three staves, one for each manual and one for the pedals. The manual staves should be bracketed together, so we need to use a PianoStaff for them. The first manual part needs two voices and the second manual part just one. @example \new PianoStaff << \new Staff = "ManualOne" << \new Voice @{ \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic @} \new Voice @{ \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic @} >> % end ManualOne Staff context \new Staff = "ManualTwo" << \new Voice @{ \ManualTwoMusic @} >> % end ManualTwo Staff context >> % end PianoStaff context @end example Next we need to add a staff for the pedal organ. This goes underneath the PianoStaff, but it must be simultaneous with it, so we need angle brackets around the two. Missing these out would generate an error in the log file. It's a common mistake which you'll make sooner or later! Try copying the final example at the end of this section, remove these angle brackets, and compile it to see what errors it generates. @example << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous \new PianoStaff << \new Staff = "ManualOne" << \new Voice @{ \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic @} \new Voice @{ \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic @} >> % end ManualOne Staff context \new Staff = "ManualTwo" << \new Voice @{ \ManualTwoMusic @} >> % end ManualTwo Staff context >> % end PianoStaff context \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" << \new Voice @{ \PedalOrganMusic @} >> >> @end example It is not necessary to use the simultaneous construct @code{<< .. >>} for the manual two staff and the pedal organ staff, since they contain only one music expression, but it does no harm, and always using angle brackets after @code{\new Staff} is a good habit to cultivate in case there are multiple voices. The opposite is true for Voices: these should habitually be followed by braces @code{@{ .. @}} in case your music is coded in several variables which need to run consecutively. Let's add this structure to the score block, and adjust the indenting. We also add the appropriate clefs, ensure stems, ties and slurs in each voice on the upper staff point to the right direction with @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo}, and enter the time signature and key to each staff using our predefined variable, @code{\TimeKey}. @example \score @{ << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous \new PianoStaff << \new Staff = "ManualOne" << \TimeKey % set time signature and key \clef "treble" \new Voice @{ \voiceOne \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic @} \new Voice @{ \voiceTwo \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic @} >> % end ManualOne Staff context \new Staff = "ManualTwo" << \TimeKey \clef "bass" \new Voice @{ \ManualTwoMusic @} >> % end ManualTwo Staff context >> % end PianoStaff context \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" << \TimeKey \clef "bass" \new Voice @{ \PedalOrganMusic @} >> % end PedalOrgan Staff >> @} % end Score context @end example That completes the structure. Any three-staff organ music will have a similar structure, although the number of voices may vary. All that remains now is to add the music, and combine all the parts together. @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion] \header { title = "Jesu, meine Freude" composer = "J S Bach" } TimeKey = { \time 4/4 \key c \minor } ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = \relative g' { g4 g f ees d2 c2 } ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = \relative c' { ees16 d ees8~ ees16 f ees d c8 d~ d c~ c c4 b8 c8. g16 c b c d } ManualTwoMusic = \relative c' { c16 b c8~ c16 b c g a8 g~ g16 g aes ees f ees f d g aes g f ees d e8~ ees16 f ees d } PedalOrganMusic = \relative c { r8 c16 d ees d ees8~ ees16 a, b g c b c8 r16 g ees f g f g8 c,2 } \score { << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous \new PianoStaff << \new Staff = "ManualOne" << \TimeKey % set time signature and key \clef "treble" \new Voice { \voiceOne \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic } \new Voice { \voiceTwo \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic } >> % end ManualOne Staff context \new Staff = "ManualTwo" << \TimeKey \clef "bass" \new Voice { \ManualTwoMusic } >> % end ManualTwo Staff context >> % end PianoStaff context \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" << \TimeKey \clef "bass" \new Voice { \PedalOrganMusic } >> % end PedalOrgan Staff context >> } % end Score context @end lilypond @node Kevesebb gépelés változókkal és függvényekkel @subsection Kevesebb gépelés változókkal és függvényekkel @translationof Saving typing with variables and functions @cindex variables @cindex variables By this point, you've seen this kind of thing: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] hornNotes = \relative c'' { c4 b dis c } \score { { \hornNotes } } @end lilypond You may even realize that this could be useful in minimalist music: @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] fragmentA = \relative c'' { a4 a8. b16 } fragmentB = \relative c'' { a8. gis16 ees4 } violin = \new Staff { \fragmentA \fragmentA \fragmentB \fragmentA } \score { { \violin } } @end lilypond However, you can also use these variables (also known as macros, or user-defined commands) for tweaks: @c TODO Avoid padtext - not needed with skylining @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] dolce = \markup { \italic \bold dolce } padText = { \once \override TextScript.padding = #5.0 } fthenp=_\markup { \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p } violin = \relative c'' { \repeat volta 2 { c4._\dolce b8 a8 g a b \padText c4.^"hi there!" d8 e' f g d c,4.\fthenp b8 c4 c-. } } \score { { \violin } \layout { ragged-right=##t } } @end lilypond These variables are obviously useful for saving typing. But they're worth considering even if you only use them once -- they reduce complexity. Let's look at the previous example without any variables. It's a lot harder to read, especially the last line. @example violin = \relative c'' @{ \repeat volta 2 @{ c4._\markup @{ \italic \bold dolce @} b8 a8 g a b \once \override TextScript.padding = #5.0 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e' f g d c,4.\markup @{ \dynamic f \italic \small @{ 2nd @} \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p @} b8 c4 c-. @} @} @end example @c TODO Replace the following with a better example -td @c Skylining handles this correctly without padText So far we've seen static substitution -- when LilyPond sees @code{\padText}, it replaces it with the stuff that we've defined it to be (ie the stuff to the right of @code{padtext=}). LilyPond can handle non-static substitution, too (you can think of these as functions). @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right] padText = #(define-music-function (parser location padding) (number?) #{ \once \override TextScript.padding = #padding #}) \relative c''' { c4^"piu mosso" b a b \padText #1.8 c4^"piu mosso" d e f \padText #2.6 c4^"piu mosso" fis a g } @end lilypond Using variables is also a good way to reduce work if the LilyPond input syntax changes (see @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}). If you have a single definition (such as @code{\dolce}) for all your input files (see @ref{Style sheets}), then if the syntax changes, you only need to update your single @code{\dolce} definition, instead of making changes throughout every @file{.ly} file. @node Partitúra és szólamkották @subsection Partitúra és szólamkották @translationof Scores and parts In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Variables can be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate both the part and the full score. It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example, suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part of a horn/@/bassoon duo @example hornNotes = \relative c @{ \time 2/4 r4 f8 a cis4 f e d @} @end example @noindent Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file @example \include "horn-music.ly" \header @{ instrument = "Horn in F" @} @{ \transpose f c' \hornNotes @} @end example The line @example \include "horn-music.ly" @end example @noindent substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth upwards. Sounding @code{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen in the following output @lilypond[quote,ragged-right] \transpose f c' \relative c { \time 2/4 r4 f8 a cis4 f e d } @end lilypond In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure rest. It is entered with a capital @code{R} followed by a duration (@code{1}@tie{}for a whole note, @code{2}@tie{}for a half note, etc.). By multiplying the duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time @example R2*3 @end example When printing the part, multi-rests must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable @example \set Score.skipBars = ##t @end example @noindent This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and this option to the music above, leads to the following result @lilypond[quote,ragged-right] \transpose f c' \relative c { \time 2/4 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R2*3 r4 f8 a cis4 f e d } @end lilypond The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with @example \include "bassoon-music.ly" \include "horn-music.ly" << \new Staff \hornNotes \new Staff \bassoonNotes >> @end example @noindent leading to @lilypond[quote,ragged-right] \relative c << \new Staff { \time 2/4 R2*3 r4 f8 a cis4 f e d } \new Staff { \clef bass r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b bes | a8 e f4 | g d | gis f | } >> @end lilypond