1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
5 @c * more details about running lilypond; error messages,
6 @c compiling/viewing (emacs?)
7 @c * where to go from First steps+More basics?
9 @c wherever possible, do not include index entries here; the
10 @c index should point to stuff in the reference manual. -gp
12 @c Your first LilyPond score in 10 minutes?
17 This tutorial starts with a short introduction to the LilyPond music
18 language. After this first contact we will show you how to produce
19 printed output. Then you will be able to create and print your own
23 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
24 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
25 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
26 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image.
29 @lilypond[fragment,quote,ragged-right,relative=2]
30 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
34 By cutting and pasting the full input into a test file, you have a
35 starting template for experiments. If you like learning in this way,
36 you will probably want to print out or bookmark
40 @ref{Cheat sheet}, which is a table listing all commands for quick
45 * Running LilyPond for the first time::
46 * More about pitches::
48 * Automatic and manual beams::
50 * Music expressions explained::
52 * Adding articulation marks to notes::
53 * Combining notes into chords::
54 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
55 * Commenting input files::
59 * Single staff polyphony::
61 * Organizing larger pieces::
62 * An orchestral part::
69 The first example demonstrates how to enter the most elementary piece
70 of music, a @rglos{scale}. A @rglos{note} can be entered by typing its
71 name, from @samp{a} through @samp{g}. So, if you enter
80 the result looks like this
82 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=1]
86 Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @{curly braces@} placed
87 around the input. For the rest of this manual, most examples will
88 omit these braces, but don't forget them in your own music!
90 In addition, many examples use @code{relative} mode. This is explained
91 in @ref{Octave entry}; for now simply be aware that some examples
92 should be placed inside @code{\relative @{ @emph{...music...} @}}
94 @cindex Case sensitive
95 Finally, LilyPond input is case sensitive. @code{ @{ c d e @} } is
96 valid input; @code{ @{ C D E @} } will produce an error message.
98 The @rglos{duration} of a note is specified by a number after the note
99 name. @samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a @rglos{half note},
100 @samp{4} for a @rglos{quarter note} and so on
106 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=2]
107 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
108 { a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 s16_" " }
111 If you do not specify a duration, the duration last entered is used
112 for the next notes. The duration of the first note in input defaults
119 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=2]
120 { a a8 a a2 a s16_" " }
124 A @rglos{rest} is entered just like a note, but with the name @samp{r}
130 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
134 Add a dot @samp{.} after the duration to get a @rglos{dotted note}
140 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=1]
141 { a2. a4 a8. a16 s16_" " }
144 The (or @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the @code{\time}
153 @c A clef here may lead to confusion, remove it.
154 @lilypond[fragment,quote]
155 \override Staff.Clef #'transparent = ##t
164 The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command
173 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
184 Remember to enclose the notes and commands in curly braces
185 @code{@{@tie{}@dots{}@tie{}@}} to convert it to printable output.
187 @c @li lypond[fragment,quote,noindent,line-width=55\staff-space]
188 @lilypond[fragment,quote,noindent,verbatim]
195 For more information on
199 @item Entering pitches and durations
201 @ref{Pitches}, and @ref{Durations}.
206 @item Time signatures and other timing commands
207 see @ref{Time signature}.
212 @node Running LilyPond for the first time
213 @section Running LilyPond for the first time
215 @c cheesy title to avoid clash with chapter name.
217 In the last section we explained what kind of things you can enter in
218 a LilyPond file. In this section we will explain what commands to run
219 and how to view or print the output. If you have not used LilyPond
220 before, want to test your setup, or want to run an example file
221 yourself, read this section.
223 @unnumberedsubsec MacOS X
225 If you double click LilyPond.app, it will open with an example
226 file. Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop, and
227 then process it with the menu command @samp{Compile > Typeset File}.
228 The resulting PDF file will be displayed on your screen.
230 Be warned that the first-ever run will take a minute or two, because
231 all of the system fonts have to be analyzed first.
233 @unnumberedsubsec Windows
235 On Windows, start up a text-editor@footnote{Any simple or
236 programmer-oriented editor will do, for example Notepad. Do not use a
237 word processor, since these insert formatting codes that will confuse
244 Save it on the desktop as @file{test.ly} and make sure that it is not
245 called @file{test.ly.TXT}. Double clicking @file{test.ly} will process
246 the file and show the resulting PDF file.
249 @unnumberedsubsec Unix
251 Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor. For
252 example, you could open an xterm and execute
253 @code{joe}.@footnote{There are macro files for VIM addicts, and there
254 is a @code{LilyPond-mode} for Emacs addicts. If they have not been
255 installed already, refer to the file @file{INSTALL.txt}.} In your
256 text editor, enter the following input and save the file as
264 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows
271 You will see something resembling
278 Interpreting music... [1]
279 Preprocessing graphical objects...
280 Calculating line breaks... [2]
281 Layout output to `test.ps'...
282 Converting to `test.pdf'...
286 @cindex Viewing music
289 The result is the file @file{test.pdf} which you can print or view
290 with the standard facilities of your operating system.@footnote{If
291 your system does not have any tools installed, you can try
292 @uref{http://@/www@/.cs@/.wisc@/.edu/@/~ghost/,Ghostscript}, a freely
293 available package for viewing and printing PDF and PostScript files.}
295 @node More about pitches
296 @section More about pitches
298 A @rglos{sharp} (@texisharp{}) pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to
299 the name, a @rglos{flat} (@texiflat{}) pitch by adding @samp{es}. As
300 you might expect, a @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is
301 made by adding @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax
302 derived from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
303 like German and Dutch.}
309 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
310 \set Score.timing = ##f
311 \transpose c c' { cis1 ees fisis aeses s16_" " }
314 @cindex key signature, setting
315 The key signature is set with the command @code{\key}, followed by
316 a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}
325 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,fragment]
333 Key signatures together with the pitches (including alterations) are
334 used to determine when to print accidentals. This is a
335 feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it
339 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
340 layout. The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part of
341 the pitch, and is therefore musical content. Whether an accidental (a
342 flat, natural or sharp @emph{sign}) is printed in front of the
343 corresponding note is a question of layout. Layout is something that
344 follows rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to
345 those rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
346 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
350 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment]
356 no note has an explicit accidental, but you still must enter
364 The code @samp{d} does not mean `print a black dot just below the
365 staff.' Rather, it means: `a note with pitch D-natural.' In the key
366 of A-flat major, it does get an accidental
368 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
373 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more effort
374 when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is easier, and
375 accidentals can be printed according to different conventions. See
376 @ref{Automatic accidentals}, for some examples how accidentals can be printed
377 according to different rules.
380 For more information on
385 see @ref{Automatic accidentals}.
388 see @ref{Key signature}.
393 @section Entering ties
396 A @rglos{tie} is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the first
399 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim,relative=3]
403 For more information on Ties see @ref{Ties}.
407 @node Automatic and manual beams
408 @section Automatic and manual beams
410 @cindex beams, by hand
411 All @rglos{beam}s are drawn automatically
413 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
418 If you do not like where beams are put, they can be entered by
419 hand. Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the last one
422 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
426 For more information on beams, see @ref{Manual beams}.
429 Here are key signatures, accidentals and ties in action
431 @lilypond[fragment,quote,noindent,line-width=50\staff-space,verbatim]
438 fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4 a8 gis~
447 There are some interesting points to note in this example. Bar lines
448 and beams are drawn automatically. Line breaks are calculated
449 automatically; it does not matter where the line breaks are in the
450 source file. Finally, the order in which time, key, and clef changes
451 are entered is not relevant: in the printout, these are ordered
452 according to standard notation conventions.
457 @section Octave entry
460 @c Tim wants to move this quotes example just before the: quotes-do not-work
461 @c score, but we'd need to remove quotes from the other two (key and
464 @c better to have this just before the `octaves are bad' snipped
465 @c but we'd need to remove the ', from \key and tie
466 To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote @code{'} (apostrophe) to
467 the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a `low quote' @code{,}
468 (comma). Middle C is @code{c'}
470 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim]
471 c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
474 An example of the use of quotes is in the following Mozart fragment
476 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
479 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
480 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
484 This example shows that music in a high register needs lots of quotes.
485 This makes the input less readable, and it is a source of errors. The
486 solution is to use `relative octave' mode. This is the
487 most convenient way to copy existing music.
489 In relative mode, a note without octavation quotes (i.e. the @code{'}
490 or @code{,} after a note) is chosen so that it is closest to the
491 previous one. For example, @samp{c f} goes up while @samp{c g} goes
494 To use relative mode, add @code{\relative} before the piece of
495 music. The first note is taken relative to the middle C
496 @c no , for this sentence
501 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim]
508 Since most music has small intervals, pieces can be written almost
509 without octavation quotes in relative mode. The previous example is
512 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
516 cis'8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
521 @c needed better, maybe even redundant explanation
522 @c added another example below.
523 @c grappig: Pa vond het heel logies, en slim toen-i eenmaal begreep.
524 @c in eerste instantie drong het `relative' niet door zonder extra uitleg.
525 Larger intervals are made by adding octavation quotes.
527 @lilypond[quote,notime,verbatim,fragment]
533 In summary, quotes or commas no longer determine the absolute height
534 of a note in @code{\relative} mode. Rather, the height of a note is
535 relative to the previous one, and changing the octave of a single note
536 shifts all following notes an octave up or down.
538 For more information on relative octaves see @ref{Relative octaves},
539 and @ref{Octave check}.
542 @node Music expressions explained
543 @section Music expressions explained
546 In input files, music is represent by so-called @emph{music
547 expression}s. We have already seen some in the previous examples;
548 a single note is a music expression
550 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
554 Enclosing a group of notes in braces creates a new music
557 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
561 Putting a bunch of music expressions (e.g., notes) in braces, means that
562 they should be played in sequence. The result again is a music
563 expression, which can be grouped with other expressions sequentially.
564 Here, the expression from the previous example is combined with two
567 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
571 This technique is useful for non-monophonic music. To enter music
572 with more voices or more staves, we also combine expressions in
573 parallel. Two voices that should play at the same time, are entered
574 as a simultaneous combination of two sequences. A `simultaneous'
575 music expression is formed by enclosing expressions in @code{<<} and
576 @code{>>}. In the following example, three sequences (all containing
577 two separate notes) are combined simultaneously
579 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
587 This mechanism is similar to mathematical
588 formulas: a big formula is created by composing small formulas. Such
589 formulas are called expressions, and their definition is recursive, so
590 you can make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
599 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
603 @cindex music expression
604 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is contained
605 in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are numbers, and larger
606 ones are made by combining expressions with operators (like @samp{+},
607 @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses. Like mathematical expressions,
608 music expressions can be nested arbitrarily deep, which is necessary
609 for complex music like polyphonic scores.
611 Note that this example only has one staff, whereas
612 the previous example had three separate staves. That is because this
613 example begins with a single note. To determine the number of staves,
614 LilyPond looks at the first element. If it is a single note, there is one
615 staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one staff.
617 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
620 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
624 Music files with deep nesting can be confusing to enter and
625 maintain. One convention that helps against this confusion is
626 indenting. When entering a file with deep nesting of braces and
627 angles, it is customary to use an indent that indicates the nesting
628 level. Formatting music like this eases reading and helps you insert
629 the right number of closing braces at the end of an expression. For
643 Some editors have special support for entering LilyPond, and can help
644 indenting source files. See @ref{Editor support} for more information.
649 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
650 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
651 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<} and
652 @code{>>}, as demonstrated here
654 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
656 \new Staff { \clef treble c'' }
657 \new Staff { \clef bass c }
662 The command @code{\new} introduces a `notation context.' A notation
663 context is an environment in which musical events (like notes or
664 @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple pieces, such
665 notation contexts are created automatically. For more complex pieces, it
666 is best to mark contexts explicitly. This ensures that each fragment
669 There are several types of contexts. @code{Staff}, @code{Voice} and
670 @code{Score} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets lyric
671 texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
673 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
674 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the minus
675 sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an expression, so
676 @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
678 We can now typeset a melody with two staves
680 @c TODO: (c) status of this Paul McCartney (?) song (let's all stand together)
682 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
699 For more information on contexts see the description in
700 @ref{Interpretation contexts}.
704 @node Adding articulation marks to notes
705 @section Adding articulation marks to notes
711 Common accents can be added to a note using a dash (@samp{-}) and a
714 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
715 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
719 Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a dash
720 (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed
722 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
726 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but you
727 can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_} (down). You can
728 also use multiple articulations on the same note. In most cases, however,
729 it is best to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
731 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
732 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
735 Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash) to
738 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
746 Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<} and
747 @code{\>}. An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will finish the
748 (de)crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used
750 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
758 A @rglos{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes, and indicates
759 legato articulation. The starting note and ending note are marked
760 with @samp{(} and @samp{)}, respectively
762 @lilypond[fragment,quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
763 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
766 @cindex slurs versus ties
767 A slur looks like a @rglos{tie}, but it has a different meaning. A
768 tie simply makes the first note sound longer, and can only be used on
769 pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the articulations
770 of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties
773 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2]
774 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
777 @cindex phrasing slurs
778 Slurs to indicate phrasing can be entered with @code{\(} and
779 @code{\)}, so you can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs at the
780 same time. You cannot have simultaneous slurs or simultaneous
783 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
784 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis, c\)
788 For more information on
793 see @ref{Fingering instructions}.
795 see @ref{Articulations}.
799 see @ref{Phrasing slurs}.
806 @node Combining notes into chords
807 @section Combining notes into chords
810 Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with angle brackets.
811 Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.
813 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
818 You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They must
819 be placed outside the angled brackets
821 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
822 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>
826 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>\!)
829 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment]
831 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>\!)
835 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
836 @section Advanced rhythmic commands
840 @cindex partial measure
841 A pickup is entered with the keyword @code{\partial}. It
842 is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4} is a quarter note upstep
843 and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note
845 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
852 Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two
853 arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the piece
854 of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes occupy
855 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its fraction
857 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
858 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
864 Grace notes are also made by prefixing a music expression with the
865 keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}
869 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
870 c4 \appoggiatura b16 c4
871 c4 \acciaccatura b16 c4
876 For more information on
881 see @ref{Grace notes},
885 see @ref{Partial measures}.
890 @node Commenting input files
891 @section Commenting input files
895 @cindex block comment
896 A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it is
897 ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed output.
898 There are two types of comments. The percent symbol @samp{%}
899 introduces a line comment; after @code{%} the rest of the line is
900 ignored. A block comment marks a whole section of music
901 input. Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}} is
902 ignored. The following fragment shows possible uses for comments
905 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
909 This line, and the notes below
910 are ignored, since they are in a
917 @c TODO post-2.6 reorg
918 @c This is good info, but I wouldn't call it a comment. IMO it should
919 @c be moved somewhere else.
923 There is a special statement that is a kind of comment. The @code{\version}
924 statement marks for which version of LilyPond the file was written.
925 To mark a file for version 2.6.0, use
932 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
933 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special program,
934 @file{convert-ly} (see @ref{Updating files with convert-ly}), and it uses
935 @code{\version} to determine what rules to apply.
938 @node Printing lyrics
939 @section Printing lyrics
942 @c TODO: (c) status of the Queen fragment.
946 Lyrics are entered by separating each syllable with a space
954 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
956 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
957 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
961 The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
962 @code{\addlyrics} keyword
964 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
967 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
968 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
970 \addlyrics { I want to break free }
975 @cindex extender line
977 This melody ends on a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable (`free')
978 sung to more than one note. This is indicated with an @emph{extender
979 line}. It is entered as two underscores, i.e.,
982 @{ I want to break free __ @}
985 @lilypond[fragment,quote,ragged-right]
988 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
989 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
991 \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
995 Similarly, hyphens between words can be entered as two dashes,
996 resulting in a centered hyphen between two syllables
999 Twin -- kle twin -- kle
1002 @lilypond[fragment,quote,ragged-right]
1008 \addlyrics { Twin -- kle twin -- kle }
1012 More options, like putting multiple lines of lyrics below a melody are
1013 discussed in @ref{Vocal music}.
1017 @section A lead sheet
1023 @c TODO: revise this, \chords { } is shorter and more intuitive.
1025 In popular music, it is common to denote accompaniment with chord names.
1026 Such chords can be entered like notes,
1028 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1029 \chordmode { c2 f4. g8 }
1033 Now each pitch is read as the root of a chord instead of a note.
1034 This mode is switched on with @code{\chordmode}
1036 Other chords can be created by adding modifiers after a colon. The
1037 following example shows a few common modifiers
1039 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1040 \chordmode { c2 f4:m g4:maj7 gis1:dim7 }
1043 For lead sheets, chords are not printed on staves, but as names on a
1044 line for themselves. This is achieved by using @code{\chords} instead
1045 of @code{\chordmode}. This uses the same syntax as @code{\chordmode},
1046 but renders the notes in a @code{ChordNames} context, with the
1049 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1050 \chords { c2 f4.:m g4.:maj7 gis8:dim7 }
1054 When put together, chord names, lyrics and a melody form
1055 a lead sheet, for example,
1059 \chords @{ @emph{chords} @}
1061 \addlyrics @{ @emph{the text} @}
1066 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1068 \chords { r2 c:sus4 f }
1070 r4 c' \times 2/3 { f g g }
1071 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
1073 \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
1077 A complete list of modifiers and other options for layout can be found
1082 @section Adding titles
1084 Bibliographic information is entered in a separate block, the
1085 @code{\header} block. The name of the piece, its composer, etc., are
1086 entered as an assignment, within @code{\header
1087 @{@tie{}@dots{}@tie{}@}}. The @code{\header} block is usually put at
1088 the top of the file. For example,
1093 composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
1100 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed above
1101 the music. More information on titling can be found in @ref{Creating
1105 @node Single staff polyphony
1106 @section Single staff polyphony
1109 @cindex multiple voices
1110 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1111 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they are
1112 printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems, slurs and
1113 beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the bottom voice has
1116 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence (with
1117 @code{@{...@}}), and combining these simultaneously, separating the
1118 voices with @code{\\}
1120 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1121 << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
1125 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be convenient;
1126 these are rests that do not print. They are useful for filling up
1127 voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the same example with a
1128 spacer rest (@code{s}) instead of a normal rest (@code{r}),
1130 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1131 << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
1136 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily
1138 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1146 { <c g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1152 More features of polyphonic typesetting are described in this manual
1153 in section @ref{Polyphony}.
1157 @section Piano staves
1159 @cindex staff switch, manual
1160 @cindex cross staff voice, manual
1161 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace. Printing
1162 such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in @ref{More staves},
1165 << \new Staff @{ @dots{} @}
1166 \new Staff @{ @dots{} @} >>
1170 but now this entire expression must be interpreted as a
1174 \new PianoStaff << \new Staff @dots{} >>
1177 Here is a small example
1179 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=1,fragment]
1181 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 c g' g }
1182 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1186 More information on formatting piano music is given in @ref{Piano music}.
1189 @node Organizing larger pieces
1190 @section Organizing larger pieces
1192 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1193 larger files, the @code{\score} blocks get a lot bigger, because the
1194 music expressions are longer, and, in the case of polyphonic pieces,
1195 more deeply nested. Such large expressions can become unwieldy.
1197 By using variables, also known as identifiers, it is possible to break
1198 up complex music expressions. An identifier is assigned as follows
1201 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1205 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic}, can be used
1206 later by preceding the name with a backslash, i.e., @code{\namedMusic}.
1207 In the next example, a two-note motive is repeated two times by using
1208 variable substitution
1210 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,nofragment]
1214 { \seufzer \seufzer }
1217 The name of an identifier should have alphabetic characters only; no
1218 numbers, underscores or dashes. The assignment should be outside of
1221 It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in the
1227 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1230 Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different
1231 places. The following example uses the above variables
1241 More information on the possible uses of identifiers is given in the
1242 technical manual, in @ref{Input variables and Scheme}.
1243 @c fixme: the ref is too technical.
1246 @node An orchestral part
1247 @section An orchestral part
1249 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
1250 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Identifiers can
1251 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
1252 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
1253 both the part and the full score.
1255 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
1256 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
1257 of a horn/@/bassoon duo
1260 hornNotes = \relative c @{
1267 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
1270 \include "horn-music.ly"
1272 instrument = "Horn in F"
1276 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
1283 \include "horn-music.ly"
1287 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
1288 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
1289 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
1290 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth upwards. Sounding
1291 @samp{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the
1292 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
1293 in the following output
1295 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1296 \transpose f c' \relative c {
1302 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
1303 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
1304 rest. It is entered with a capital @samp{R} followed by a duration
1305 (1@tie{}for a whole note, 2@tie{}for a half note, etc.). By multiplying the
1306 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
1307 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
1313 When printing the part, multi-rests
1314 must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable
1317 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
1321 This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the
1322 @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and
1323 this option to the music above, leads to the following result
1325 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1326 \transpose f c' \relative c {
1328 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
1335 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
1336 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
1337 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
1340 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
1341 \include "horn-music.ly"
1344 \new Staff \hornNotes
1345 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
1352 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1360 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b bes |
1361 a8 e f4 | g d | gis f
1366 More in-depth information on preparing parts and scores can be found
1367 in the notation manual; see @ref{Orchestral music}.
1369 Setting run-time variables (`properties') is discussed in
1370 @ref{Changing context properties on the fly}.
1377 * discuss expectations (?)
1381 * overview of chapters?