[lilypond.git] / Documentation / user / tutorial.itely

@c -*-texinfo-*-

@c TODO: LilyPond LilyPond LilyPond

@node Tutorial
@chapter Tutorial

@html
<!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Tutorial --->
@end html

@menu
* First steps::                 Music language of LilyPond
* Running LilyPond::            Printing music
* More basics::                 
* Printing lyrics::             
* A melody with chords ::       
* More stanzas::                
* More movements ::             Joining separate pieces of music
* A piano excerpt::             Piano music
* Fine tuning a piece::         
* An orchestral score::         Conductor's score and individual parts
* Integrating text and music::  Integrating text and music
* End of tutorial::             The end
@end menu

Operating lilypond is done through text files: to print a piece of
music, you enter the music in a file.  When you run lilypond, that
file is read, and after some computations, the program produces a file
containing the sheet music that you can print or view.

This tutorial starts with a small introduction to the LilyPond music
language.  After this first contact, we will show you how to run
LilyPond to produce printed output; you should then be able to create
your first sheets of music. The tutorial continues with more and more
complex examples.

@node First steps
@section First steps

We tsart off with showing how very simple music is entered in
LilyPond:  you get a simple note by typing its note name, from
@code{a} through @code{g}. So if you enter
@quotation
@example
c d e f g a b
@end example
@end quotation
then the result looks like this:
@quotation
@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\transpose c'' { c d e f g a b }
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

We will continue with this format: first we show a snippet of input,
then the resulting output.

The length of a note is specified by adding a number, ``@code{1}'' for a
whole note, ``@code{2}'' for a half note, and so on:

@quotation
@example
a1 a2 a4 a16 a32
@end example

@c missing clef seems to raise more questions than actual pitch of notes,
@c as these are snippets anyway
@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
%\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
\transpose c'' { a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 }
s16_" "
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

If you don't specify a duration, the previous one is used: 
@quotation
@example
a4 a a2 a
@end example

@c missing clef seems to raise more questions than actual pitch of notes,
@c as these are snippets anyway
@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
%\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
\transpose c'' { a a a2 a }
s16_" "
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

A sharp (@texisharp{}) is made by adding ``@code{is}'', a flat
(@texiflat{}) by adding ``@code{es}'':

@quotation
@example
cis1 ees fisis aeses
@end example

@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\transpose c'' { cis1 ees fisis aeses }
s16_" "
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

Add a dot ``@code{.}'' after the duration to get a dotted note:
@quotation
@example
a2. a4 a8. a16
@end example

@c missing clef seems to raise more questions than actual pitch of notes,
@c as these are snippets anyway
@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
%\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
\transpose c'' { a2. a4 a8. a16 }
s16_" "
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

The meter (or time signature) can be set with the @code{\time} command:

@quotation
@example
\time 3/4
\time 6/8
\time 4/4
@end example

@c a clef here may lead to confusion
@lilypond[fragment]
\property Staff.Clef \set #'transparent = ##t 
\time 3/4
s4_" "
\time 6/8
s4_" "
\time 4/4
s16_" "
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

The clef can be set using the ``@code{\clef}'' command:

@c what is more common name treble or violin?
@c in Dutch, its violin.
@quotation
@example
\clef violin
\clef bass
\clef alto
\clef tenor
@end example

@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\clef violin
s4_" "
\clef bass
s4_" "
\clef alto
s4_" "
\clef tenor
s16_" "
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

From these commands and notes, a piece of music can be formed.  A piece
of music is made by enclosing it in ``@code{\notes @{ ... @}}''.
LilyPond then knows that music follows (and not lyrics, for example):

@quotation
@example
\notes @{
   \time 3/4
   \clef bass
   c2 e4 g2.
   f4 e d c2.
@}
@end example
@end quotation
@separate

At this point, the piece of music is ready to be printed.  This is done
by combining the music with a printing command.

The printing command is the so-called ``@code{\paper}'' block.  You
will see later that the @code{\paper} block is necessary to customize
printing specifics.  The music and the @code{\paper} block are combined by
enclosing them in ``@code{\score @{ ... @}}''.  This is what a full
LilyPond source file looks like:

@quotation
@example
\score @{
  \notes @{
     \time 3/4
     \clef bass
     c2 e4 g2.
     f4 e d c2.
  @}
  \paper @{ @}
@}
@end example

@lilypond
\score {
  \notes {
     \time 3/4
     \clef bass
     c2 e4 g2.
     f4 e d c2.
  }
  \paper { linewidth = 60 * \staffspace }
}
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate


@node Running LilyPond
@section Running LilyPond

In the last section, we explained what kind of things you could enter
in a lilypond file.  In this section we explain how to run LilyPond,
and how view or print the output.  If you have not used LilyPond
before, want to test your setup of LilyPond, or try to run an example
file yourself, then read this section.  The instructions that follow
are for running LilyPond on Unix-like systems.  Some additional
instructions for running LilyPond on Windows are given at the end of
this section.

You begin with opening a terminal window, and start up a text editor.
For example, open an xterm and execute @code{joe}.  In your text editor,
enter the following input, and save the file as @file{test.ly}:

@quotation
@example
\score @{
  \notes @{ c'4 e' g' @}
@} 
@end example
@end quotation

@cindex ly2dvi

@c now this is weird, running ly2dvi to run LilyPond
@c (therefore name change proposal) 

LilyPond is the program that computes the sheet music. All other
things, such as adding titles, page breaking and other page layout,
are done by a small wrapper program called
@code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} calls lilypond to render the music, and
then adds the titling and page layout instructions.  To process
@file{test.ly} with ly2dvi, proceed as follows:

@quotation
@example
ly2dvi -P test.ly
@end example
@end quotation

You will see the following on your screen:

@quotation
@example
GNU LilyPond 1.4.0
Now processing: `/home/fred/ly/test.ly'
Parsing...
Interpreting music...[1]
 @emph{ ... more interesting stuff ... }
PS output to `test.ps'...
DVI output to `test.dvi'...
@end example
@end quotation
@cindex DVI file
@cindex Viewing music
@cindex xdvi

The results of the ly2dvi run are two files, @file{test.dvi} and
@file{test.ps}.  The PS file (@file{test.ps}) is the one you can print.
You can view the PS file using the program ghostview.  If a version of
ghostview is installed on your system, one of these commands will
produce a window with some music notation on your screen:
@c eeek
@quotation
@example
  gv test.ps
  ghostview test.ps
  ggv test.ps
  kghostview test.ps
@end example
@end quotation
If you are satisfied with the looks of the music displayed on your
screen, you can print the PS file by clicking File/Print inside
ghostview.

The DVI file (@file{test.dvi}) contains the same sheet music in a
different format. DVI files are more easily processed by the computer,
so viewing them usually is quicker.  Execute @code{xdvi test.dvi}
to view the DVI file.

If your DVI viewer does not have a "Print" button, you can print the
file by executing @code{lpr test.ps}.

@c volgende alinea schrappen?  

If you can't get the examples to print, then you should look into
installing and configuring ghostscript.  Refer to GhostScript's website
at @uref{http://www.ghostscript.com}.

@cindex GhostScript
@cindex @code{lpr}
@cindex Printing output
@cindex PostScript

@unnumberedsubsec Windows users
Windows users start the terminal by clicking on the LilyPond or Cygwin
icon.  Notepad is sufficient for editing the LilyPond file.  Viewing
the PS file can be done with:
@quotation
@example
@code{gsview32 test.ps}
@end example
@end quotation
You can also print from the command line by executing:
@quotation
@example
@code{gsview32 /s test.ps}
@end example
@end quotation


@strong{SUMMARY}

To run LilyPond, enter a file, and run the command @code{ly2dvi} on
that file. The resulting files are either DVI or PostScript, and can
be viewed with @code{xdvi} (unix) and ghostview (unix and windows)
respectively. The following table summarizes the constructs that were
discussed in the previous two sections.

@multitable @columnfractions  .3 .3 .4  

@item @b{Syntax}
@tab @b{Description}
@tab @b{Example}

@item @code{1 2 8 16}
@tab durations 
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
c1 c2 c8 c16
@end lilypond

@item @code{. ..}
@tab augmentation dots
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
c4. c4..  
@end lilypond

@item @code{c d e f g a b }
@tab scale 
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
c d e f g a b
@end lilypond

@item @code{\clef treble \clef bass }
@tab clefs
@tab
@lilypond[fragment]
\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t 
\clef treble
s4_" "
\clef bass
s4_" "
@end lilypond

@item @code{\time 3/4 \time 4/4 }
@tab time signature
@tab
@lilypond[fragment]
\property Staff.Clef \set #'transparent = ##t 
\time 3/4
s4_" "
\time 4/4
s16_" "
@end lilypond

@end multitable


@node More basics
@section More basics 

We continue with the introduction of the remaining musical constructs.
Normal rests are entered just like notes, but use the name
``@code{r}'':

@quotation
@example
r2 r4 r8 r16
@end example

@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
r2 r4 r8 r16
s16_" "
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

@c Tim wants to move this quotes example just before the: quotes-don't-work
@c score, but we'd need to remove quotes from the other two (key and
@c tie) examples...

@c better to have this just before the `octaves are bad' snipped
@c but we'd need to remove the ', from \key and tie 
To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote @code{'} (apostrophe) to
the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a ``low quote'' @code{,}
(a comma).  The central C is @code{c'}:

@quotation
@example
c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
@end example

@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

A tie is created by entering a tilde ``@code{~}'' between the notes to
be tied.  A tie between two notes means that the second note must not be
played separately, but just makes the first note sound longer:

@quotation
@lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
g'4 ~ g' a'2 ~ a'4
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

The key signature is set with the command ``@code{\key}'':
@quotation
@example
\key d \major
g'1
\key c \minor
g'
@end example

@lilypond[fragment]
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\key d \major
g'1
\key c \minor
g'
@end lilypond
@end quotation


@c bit on the long/complex/scary taste
@c cheating a bit: two lines makes for a friendlier look
This example shows notes, ties, octave marks, and rests in action.

@quotation
@example
\score @{
  \notes @{
    \time 4/4
    \key d \minor
    \clef violin
    r4 r8 d''8 cis''4 e''
    d''8 a'4. ~ a' b'8
    cis''4 cis''8 cis'' bis'4 d''8 cis'' ~
    cis''2 r2
  @}
  \paper @{ @}
@}
@end example

@lilypond
\score {
  \notes {
    \time 4/4
    \clef violin
    \key d \minor
    r4 r8 d''8 cis''4 e''
    d''8 a'4. ~ a' b'8
    cis''4 cis''8 cis'' bis'4 d''8 cis'' ~
    cis''2 r2
  }
  \paper { linewidth = 50*\staffspace }
}
@end lilypond
@end quotation

@c accidentals...
There are some interesting points to note in this example.
Accidentals (sharps and flats) don't have to be marked explicitly: you
just enter the note name, and LilyPond determines whether or not to
print an accidental.  Bar lines and beams are drawn automatically.
LilyPond calculates line breaks for you; it doesn't matter where you
make new lines in the source file. Finally, the order of time, key and
clef changes is not relevant: lilypond will use standard notation
conventions for ordering these items.

The example also indicates that a piece of music written in a high
register needs lots of quotes.  This makes the input less readable,
and is therefore also a potential source of errors.

The solution is to use ``relative octave'' mode.  In practice, this is
the most convenient way to copy existing music.  To use relative mode,
add @code{\relative} before the piece of music.  You must also give a
note from which relative starts, in this case @code{c''}.  If you type
no octavation quotes, relative mode chooses the note that is closest
to the previous one, which is often just the one you need.
@c don't use commas or quotes in this sentence
For example: @code{c f} goes up; @code{c g} goes down:

@quotation
@example
\relative c'' @{
  c f c g c
@}
@end example

@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\relative c'' {
  c f c g c
}
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

@c needed better, maybe even redundant explanation
@c grappig: Pa vond het heel logies, en slim toen-i eenmaal begreep.
@c in eerste instantie drong het `relative' niet door zonder extra uitleg.
You can make a large interval by adding octavation quotes.  Note that
quotes or commas do not determine the absolute height of a note;
the height of a note is relative to the previous one.
@c don't use commas or quotes in this sentence
For example: @code{c f,} goes down; @code{f, f} are both the same;
@code{c c'} are the same; and @code{c g'} goes up:

@quotation
@example
\relative c'' @{
  c f, f c' c g' c,
@}
@end example

@lilypond[fragment]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\relative c'' {
  c f, f c' c g' c,
}
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate


@strong{SUMMARY}

The following table  summarizes the syntax learned in this section.

@multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .4  

@item @b{Syntax}
@tab @b{Description}
@tab @b{Example}

@item @code{r4 r8}
@tab rest 
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
r4 r8
@end lilypond


@item @code{~}
@tab tie
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
d ~ d
@end lilypond


@item @code{\key es \major }
@tab key signature
@tab
@lilypond[fragment]
\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
\clef treble
\key es \major
s4 
@end lilypond

@item @code{'}
@tab raise octave
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
a a'
@end lilypond

@item @code{,}
@tab lower octave
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
c c,
@end lilypond

@end multitable

A slur is drawn across many notes, and indicates bound articulation
(legato).  The starting note and ending note are marked with a
``@code{(}'' and a ``@code{)}'' respectively:

@quotation
@lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim]
d4( )c16( cis d e c cis d )e( )d4
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

If you need two slurs at the same time (one for articulation, one for
phrasing), you can also make a phrasing slur with @code{\(} and
@code{\)}.

@c lousy example
@c ? --hwn
@c fragment of 1st hrn in Adams' The Chairman Dances, with creative
@c chromatic thing pasted in front.  (admittedly the original doesn't
@c have a phrasing slur. The problem is that we don't want the slur
@c and the Phrasing slur to collide. We're trying to make a good
@c impression here.

@quotation
@lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim]
a8(\( ais b ) c cis2 b'2 a4 cis, \) c
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

Beams are drawn automatically, but if you don't like the choices, you
can enter beams by hand. Surround the notes to be grouped with @code{[}
and @code{]}:
@quotation
@lilypond[fragment,relative 1, verbatim]
[a8 ais] [d es r d]
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a staff
is marked by adding @code{\context Staff} before it.  These
@code{Staff}'s can be grouped inside @code{<} and @code{>}, as is
demonstrated here:

@quotation
@lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
<
  \context Staff = staffA { \clef violin c'' }
  \context Staff = staffB { \clef bass c }
>
@end lilypond
@end quotation

In this example, @code{staffA} and @code{staffB} are names that are
given to the staves.  It doesn't matter what names you give, as long
as each staff has a unique name.

@separate

We can typeset a melody with two staves now:

@quotation
@lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
\score {
  \notes 
  < \context Staff = staffA {
      \time 3/4
      \clef violin
      \relative c'' { e2 ( d4 c2 b4 [a8 a] [b b] [g g] )a2. }  
    }
    \context Staff = staffB {
       \clef bass
       c2 e4  g2.
       f4 e d c2.
    }
  >
  \paper {} 
}
@end lilypond
@end quotation

Notice that the time signature is specified in one melody staff only
(the top staff), but is printed on both.  LilyPond knows that the time
signature should be the same for all staves.

@separate

Common accents can be added to a note using @code{-.}, @code{--}, @code{->}:
@quotation
@lilypond[verbatim,relative 1]
c-. c-- c->
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings to the note:
@quotation
@lilypond[verbatim,relative 1]
c-\ff c-\mf
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

Crescendi are started with the commands @code{\<}  and @code{\>}. The
command @code{\!} finishes a crescendo on the following note.
@quotation
@lilypond[verbatim,relative 1]
c2\<  \!c2-\ff  \>c2  \!c2
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

Chords can be made by surrounding notes with @code{<} and @code{>}:
@quotation
@lilypond[relative 0, fragment,verbatim]
r4 <c e g> <c f a> 
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

@ignore
@c te diepzinnig?
@c hmm, te losjes, iig
In general, @code{ < @var{stuff} > } is used when @var{stuff} all
happens at the same time, like in chords, or (like in the two-staff
example above) in a bunch of stacked staves.
@end ignore

Of course, you can combine beams and ties with chords.  Notice that
beam and tie markings must be placed outside the chord markers:
@quotation
@lilypond[relative 0, fragment,verbatim]
r4 [<c8 e g> <c8 f a>] ~ <c8 f a>
@end lilypond
@end quotation

When you want to combine chords with slurs and dynamics, technical
detail crops up: you have type these commands next to the notes, which
means that they have to be inside the @code{< >}:


@quotation
@example
r4 <c8 e g \> ( > <c e g> <c e g>  < ) \! c8 f a>
@end example
@lilypond[relative 0, fragment]
\slurUp
r4 <c8 e g \> ( > <c e g> <c e g>  < ) \! c8 f a>
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

There is one golden rule that you should keep in mind when writing
LilyPond input:
@quotation
@strong{DO NOT START A PIECE WITH A CHORD}
@end quotation
Of course, it is a allowed, but the result might not be what you expect:
@quotation
@lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
\score { \notes <c'2 e'2> }
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate

If you have a piece that starts with a chord, then you must explicitly
state that the notes of the chord are to be put on the same staff, in
the same voice.  This is done by specifying @code{\context Staff} for
the notes:

@quotation
@lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
\score { \notes \context Voice <c'2 e'2> }
@end lilypond
@end quotation
@separate



@strong{SUMMARY}

@multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .4  

@item @b{Syntax}
@tab @b{Description}
@tab @b{Example}


@item @code{( )}
@tab slur
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
c( d )e
@end lilypond


@item @code{\( \)}
@tab phrasing slur
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
c\(  c() d \)e
@end lilypond


@item @code{[ ]}
@tab beam
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
[a8 b]
@end lilypond


@item @code{< \context Staff ... >}
@tab more staffs
@tab
@lilypond[fragment]
< \context Staff = SA { c'1 }
  \context Staff = SB { c'1 } >
@end lilypond

  
@item @code{-> -.}
@tab articulations
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
c-> c-.
@end lilypond


@item @code{-\mf -\sfz}
@tab dynamics
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
c-\mf c-\sfz
@end lilypond


@item @code{\< \!}
@tab crescendo
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
a\< a \!a
@end lilypond

@item @code{\> \!}
@tab decrescendo
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\property Score.timing = ##f
\property Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\property Staff.Clef = \turnOff
a\> a \!a
@end lilypond


@item @code{< >}
@tab chord
@tab
@lilypond[fragment, relative 1]
\context Voice <c e> 
@end lilypond

@end multitable

You know the basic ingredients of a music file, so this is the right
moment to try your at hand at doing it yourself: try to type some
simple examples, and experiment a little.

When you're comfortable with the basics, then you might want to read
the rest of this chapter. It also a manual in tutorial-style, but it
is much more in-depth, dealing with more advanced topics such as
lyrics, chords, orchestral scores and parts, fine tuning output,
polyphonic music, and integrating text and music.





@node Printing lyrics
@section Printing lyrics
@cindex lyrics

In this section we shall explain how to typeset the following
fragment of The Free Software Song: 

@lilypond[singleline]
\score  { \notes { \addlyrics
  \notes \relative c' {
    \time 7/4
    d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
    b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
  \context Lyrics \lyrics { 
    Join us now __ and
    share the soft -- ware; }
}
\paper { linewidth = -1. }
}
@end lilypond


@cindex lyric mode
@cindex @code{\lyrics}


To print lyrics, you must enter them, and then instruct lilypond to
handle the lyrics by printing them.
You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
punctuation and accents without any hassle.

Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text.  For
example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables.  Note that
the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
special symbols.

Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
@code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
@code{He_could4 not4}.  All unquoted underscores are converted to
spaces.

These are the lyrics for the free software song:

@example 
 \lyrics @{ 
    Join us now __ and
    share the soft -- ware; @}
@end example

As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}.  This will
create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of
the lyric.  This line will run all the way to the start of the next
lyric, so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using
@code{_}).


If you can use have hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
@example
        soft- ware
@end example
but then the hyphen will be attached to the to the end of the first
syllable.
 
If you want them centered between syllables you can use the special
`@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables.  The
hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
syllables. It will be centered between the syllables.  
 
Normally, the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads.
Note heads alone make no sense, they need surrounding information: a key
signature, a clef, staff lines, etc.  They need @emph{context}.  In
LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called `interpretation
contexts'.  Interpretation contexts exist for generating notation
(`notation context') and for generating sound (`performance
context'). These objects only exist during a run of LilyPond.

When LilyPond interprets music, it will create a Staff context.
We don't want that default here, because we want lyric.  The
command
@example
  \context Lyrics
@end example
explicitly creates an interpretation context of 
@code{Lyrics} type to interpret the song text that we entered.

The melody of the song doesn't offer anything new:
@example
 \notes \relative c' @{
    \time 7/4
    d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
    b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 @}
@end example

Both can be combined with the @code{\addlyrics}:
@example
\addlyrics
  \notes \relative c' @dots{}
  \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{} 
@end example

The lyrics are also music expressions,  similar to notes. What happens
here, is that each syllable of the lyrics is put under the a note of
the melody. 
The complete file is listed here:

@example
\score  @{ \notes @{ \addlyrics
  \notes \relative c' @{
    \time 7/4
    d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
    b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 @}
  \context Lyrics \lyrics @{ 
    Join us now __ and
    share the soft -- ware; @}
@}
\paper @{ linewidth = -1. @}
@}
@end example



@node A melody with chords 
@section A melody with chords

In this section we show how to typeset a melody with chord
accompaniment. This file is included as @file{input/tutorial/flowing.ly}.

@example 
\include "paper16.ly"
melody = \notes \relative c' @{
        \partial 8
        \key c \minor
        g8 |
        c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | f4 f8 g [es() d] c g |
        c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | d4 es8 d c4.
        \bar "|."
@}

accompaniment =\chords @{
        r8
        c2:3- f:3-.7 d:min es4 c8:min r8
        c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min @}

\score @{
        \simultaneous @{
          %\accompaniment
          \context ChordNames \accompaniment
            \context Staff = mel @{        
              \melody 
            @}

        @}
        \midi  @{ \tempo 4=72 @}
        \paper @{ linewidth = 10.0\cm @}
@} 
@end example 


The result would look this.

@lilypond[center]
\include "paper16.ly"
melody = \notes \relative c' {
        \partial 8
        \key c \minor
        g8 |
        c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | f4 f8 g [es() d] c g |
        c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | d4 es8 d c4.
        \bar "|."
}

accompaniment =\chords {
        r8
        c2:3- f:3-.7 d:min es4 c8:min r8
        c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min }

\score {
        \simultaneous {
          %\accompaniment
          \context ChordNames \accompaniment

            \context Staff = mel {
              \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
             \melody 
            }
        }
        \midi  { \tempo 4=72 }
        \paper { linewidth = 10.0\cm }
}
@end lilypond

Again, we will dissect the file line by line.

@separate
@example 

        \include "paper16.ly"
 
@end example
Smaller size for inclusion in a book.
@separate
@example 

        melody = \notes \relative c' @{
 
@end example 
The structure of the file will be the same as the previous one, a
@code{\score} block with music in it.  To keep things readable, we will
give names to the different parts of music, and use the names to
construct the music within the score block.

@separate
@example 
        \partial 8
@end example 

@cindex @code{\partial}
@cindex anacrusis
The piece starts with an anacrusis of one eighth.
@separate
@example
        \key c \minor
@end example
The key is C minor: we have three flats.

@separate
@example 

        c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | f4 f8 g [es() d] c g |
        c4 c8 d [es () d] c4 | d4 es8 d c4.
        \bar "|."
 
@end example 

@cindex manual beaming
@cindex automatic beaming, turning off
We use explicit beaming.  Since this is a song,  we turn automatic
beams off, and use explicit beaming where needed.
@separate
@example 

        @}
 
@end example 
This ends the definition of @code{melody}.  

@separate
@example 

        text = \lyrics @{
 
@end example
@cindex lyrics
@cindex identifier assignment
@cindex syllables, entering

@separate
@example 

        accompaniment =\chords @{
 
@end example
@cindex chords
@cindex mode, chords
We'll put chords over the music. To enter them, there is a special mode
analogous to @code{\lyrics} and @code{\notes} mode, where you can give
the names of the chords you want, instead of listing the notes
comprising the chord.
@separate
@example 

        r8
 
@end example 
There is no accompaniment during the anacrusis.
@separate
@example 

        c2:3- 
 
@end example

@cindex tonic
@cindex chord modifier
@cindex modifier, chord 
This is a c minor chord, lasting half a note.  Chord are entered by
entering the tonic. Then notes can be changed. In this case, a small third
is used. The cod for this is @code{3-}. 

@separate
@example
f:3-.7
@end example
Similarly, @code{7} modifies (adds) a seventh, which is small by
default to create the @code{f a c es} chord.  Multiple modifiers must be
separated by dots.
@separate
@example 

        d:min es4 c8:min r8
 
@end example
Some modifiers have predefined names, e.g. @code{min} is  the same as
@code{3-}, so @code{d-min} is a minor @code{d} chord.
@separate
@example 

        c2:min f:min7 g:7^3.5 c:min @}
 
@end example
@cindex named modifier

A named modifier @code{min} and a normal modifier @code{7} do not have
to be separated by a dot.  Tones from a chord are removed with chord
subtractions.  Subtractions are started with a caret, and they are
also separated by dots.  In this example, @code{g:7^3.5} produces a
minor seventh.  The brace ends the sequential music.
@separate
@example 

        \score @{
                \simultaneous @{
 
@end example 
We assemble the music in the @code{\score} block.  Melody, lyrics and
accompaniment have to sound at the same time, so they should be
@code{\simultaneous}.
@cindex @code{\simultaneous}
@separate
@example 

        %\accompaniment
 
@end example 
Chord mode generates notes grouped in @code{\simultaneous} music.  If
you remove the comment sign, you can see the chords in normal
notation: they will be printed as note heads on a separate
staff. To print them as chords names, they have to be interpreted as
being chords, not notes. This is done with the following command:  
@separate
@example 

        \context ChordNames \accompaniment
 
@end example
@cindex context
@cindex interpretation context
@cindex notation context


Normally, the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads.
Note heads alone make no sense, they need surrounding information: a key
signature, a clef, staff lines, etc.  They need @emph{context}.  In
LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called `interpretation
contexts'.  Interpretation contexts exist for generating notation
(`notation context') and for generating sound (`performance
context'). These objects only exist during a run of LilyPond.

When LilyPond interprets music, it will create a Staff context.  If
the @code{%} sign in the previous line were removed, you could see
that mechanism in action.

We don't want that default here, because we want chord names.  The
command above explicitly creates an interpretation context of 
@code{ChordNames} type to interpret the music @code{\accompaniment}. 

@separate
@example 

        \context Staff = mel @{
 
@end example

We place the melody on a staff called @code{mel}. We give it a name to
differentiate it from the one that would contain note heads for the
chords, if you would remove the comment before the ``note heads''
version of the accompaniment. By giving this staff a name, it is
forced to be different.
@separate
@example 

        \property Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
 
@end example
@cindex \property
@cindex context variables
@cindex setting context variables
An interpretation context has variables, called properties, that tune
its behavior.  One of the variables is @code{autoBeaming}.  Setting
this @code{Staff}'s property to @code{##f}, which is the boolean value
@var{false}, turns the automatic beaming mechanism off for the current
staff.


@separate
@example 

          \melody
        @}
 
@end example 
Finally, we put the melody on the current staff.  Note that the
@code{\property} directives and @code{\melody} are grouped in sequential
music,  so the property settings are done before the melody is
processed.

@separate
@example 

        \midi  @{ \tempo 4=72@}
 
@end example 
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for
connecting and recording digital instruments. So a MIDI file is like a
tape recording of an instrument. The @code{\midi} block makes the
music go to a MIDI file, so you can listen to the music you entered.  It
is great for checking the music.  Whenever you hear something weird, you
probably hear a typing error.

Syntactically, @code{\midi} is similar to @code{\paper @{ @}}, since it
also specifies an output method. You can specify the tempo using the
@code{\tempo} command, in this case the tempo of quarter notes is set to
72 beats per minute.
@separate
@example 

        \paper @{ linewidth = 10.0\cm @}
 
@end example 
We also want notation output.  The linewidth is short so the piece
will be set in two lines.

@node More stanzas
@section More stanzas


@cindex phrasing

If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
We show how you can do this by showing how you could print a frivolous
fragment of a fictional Sesame Street duet. 

@lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
\score {
\addlyrics
  \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
     g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.  }
  \lyrics \context Lyrics <
  \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
    \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
    Hi, my name is bert.    }
  \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
    \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie" 
    Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
  >
}
@end lilypond

To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the
LyricsVoice to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
In the following example, the Voice identity is @code{duet},
@example
\context Voice = duet @{
     \time 3/4
     g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.  @}
@end example
and the
identities of the LyricsVoices are @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
@example
  \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
    Hi, my name is bert. @}
  \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
    Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
@end example

We add the names of the singers. This can be done by setting
@code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and
@code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. Notice how you must
surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode.

@example
    \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
    @dots{}
    \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie" 
@end example


@node More movements 
@section More movements

LilyPond only handles formatting sheet music. It doesn't concern
itself with producing titles. This is the jobs of a simple wrapper
program called ly2dvi. @code{ly2dvi} calls LilyPond to do the
sheet music formatting. Then it produces titles, and ties together all
inputs into a single @file{dvi} file. In this section, we show some of
the options  for titling. We will  show how you can produce a file
that looks like this:

@center @strong{Two miniatures}
@flushright
Opus 1.
@end flushright
@flushleft
@var{Up}
@end flushleft
@lilypond
  \score {
    \notes { c'4 d'4 }
    \paper { linewidth = -1.0 }
  }
@end lilypond
@flushright
Opus 2.
@end flushright
@flushleft
@var{Down}
@end flushleft
@lilypond
  \score {
    \notes { d'4 c'4 }
    \paper { linewidth = -1.0 }
  }
@end lilypond

For example, consider the following file (@file{miniatures.ly}) 

@example
\version "1.5.60"
\header @{
  title = "Two miniatures"
  composer = "F. Bar Baz" 
  tagline = "small is beautiful" @}

\paper @{ linewidth = -1.0 @}

%@{

Mental note: discuss Schenkerian analysis of these key pieces.

%@}


\score @{
    \notes @{ c'4 d'4 @}
    \header @{
        opus = "Opus 1."
        piece = "Up" @}
@}
\score @{
    \notes @{ d'4 c'4 @}
    \header @{
        opus = "Opus 2."
        piece = "Down" @}
@}
@end example

The information for the global titling is in a so-called header block.
The information in this block is not used by
LilyPond, but it is passed into the output.  @file{ly2dvi} uses this
information to print titles above the music.
@cindex assignments
@cindex identifier assignment
the @code{\header} block contains assignments.  In each assignment, a
variable is set to a value. The header block for this file looks like
this
@cindex @code{\header}
@example 
  \header @{
    title = "Two miniatures" 
    composer = "F. Bar Baz"
    tagline = "small is beautiful"
  @}
@end example

When you process a file with ly2dvi, a signature line is printed at
the bottom of the last page.  This signature is produced from the
@code{tagline} field of @code{\header}.  The default "Lily was here,
@var{version number}" is convenient for us programmers. Archived
the layout of different versions can be compared using archived
print-outs (that include a version number).

Many people find the default tagline too droll.  If that is the case,
assign something else to @code{tagline}, as shown above.

@separate
@example
  \paper @{ 
    linewidth = -1.0 @}
@end example

A paper block at top level, i.e. not in a @code{\score} block sets the
default page layout.  The following @code{\score} blocks don't have
@code{\paper} sections, so the settings of this block are substituted:

The variable @code{linewidth} normally sets the length of the systems
on the page. However, a negative value has a special meaning. If
@code{linewidth} is less than 0, no line breaks are inserted into the
score, and the spacing is set to natural length: a short phrase takes
up little space, a longer phrase more space.

@example
%@{

Mental note: discuss Schenkerian analysis of these key pieces.

%@}
@end example

Mental notes to yourself can be put into comments. There are two types
of comments. Line comments are introduced by @code{%}, and block
comments are delimited by @code{%@{} and @code{%@}}.

@separate
@example
  \score @{
    \notes @{ c'4 d'4 @}
@end example

In previous examples, notes were specified in relative octaves,
i.e. each note was put in the octave that is closest to its
predecessor. Besides relative, there is also absolute octave
specification, which you get when you don't specify @code{\relative}. In
this input mode, the central C is denoted by @code{c'}. Going down, you
get @code{c} @code{c,} @code{c,,} etc.  Going up, you get @code{c''}
@code{c'''} etc.

When you're copying music from existing sheet music, relative octaves
are probably the easiest to use: it's less typing work and errors are
easily spotted. However, if you write LilyPond input directly, either by
hand (i.e. composing) or by computer, absolute octaves may be easier to use.


@separate
@example
    \header @{
@end example

The @code{\header} is normally at the top of the file, where it sets
values for the rest of the file. If you want to typeset different pieces
from one file (for example, if there are multiple movements, or if
you're making an exercise book), you can put different @code{\score}
blocks into the input file. ly2dvi will assemble all LilyPond output
files into a big document. The contents of \header blocks specified
within each score, are used for the titling of each movement.
@separate
@example
        opus = "Opus 1."
        piece = "Up" @}
@end example
For example, the Opus number is put at the right, and the piece string
will be at the left.



@example
\version "1.5.60"
\header @{
  title = "Two miniatures"
  composer = "F. Bar Baz" 
  tagline = "small is beautiful" @}

\paper @{ linewidth = -1.0 @}

\score @{
    \notes @{ c'4 d'4 @}
    \header @{
        opus = "Opus 1."
        piece = "Up" @}
@}
\score @{
    \notes @{ d'4 c'4 @}
    \header @{
        opus = "Opus 2."
        piece = "Down" @}
@}
@end example


@separate
@example 
\version "1.6.0"
@end example 
Lilypond and its language are still under development, and
occasionally, details of the syntax are changed. This fragment
indicates for which version the input file was written. When you
compile this file, the version number will be checked, and you will
get a warning when the file is too old.  This version number is also
used by the @code{convert-ly} program (See @ref{Older 
LilyPond versions}), which is used to update the file to the latest
lily version.


@node A piano excerpt
@section A piano excerpt

Our fourth subject is a piece of piano music.  The fragment in the
input file is a piano reduction of the G major Sinfonia by Giovanni
Battista Sammartini.  It was composed around 1740.  It's in the source
package under the name @file{input/tutorial/sammartini.ly}.

@lilypondfile[smallverbatim]{sammartini.ly}

As you can see, this example features multiple voices on one staff.  To
make room for those voices, their notes have to be stemmed in opposite
directions.

LilyPond includes the identifiers @code{\stemUp}, @code{\stemDown} along
with some other commonly used formatting instructions, but to explain how
it works, we wrote our own here.  Of course, you should use predefined
identifiers like these if possible: then you will be affected less by
the implementation changes we occasionally make.

@separate
@example 
viola = \notes \relative c'  \context Voice = viola @{ 
@end example 
In this example, you can see multiple parts on a staff.  Each part is
associated with one notation context.  This notation context handles
stems and dynamics (among others).  The type name of this context is
@code{Voice}.  For each part we have to make sure that there is
precisely one @code{Voice} context, so we give it a unique name
(`@code{viola}').

@separate
@example 
<c4-\arpeggio g' c>
@end example 
The delimiters @code{<} and @code{>} are shorthands for
@code{\simultaneous @{} and @code{@}}. The expression enclosed in
@code{<} and @code{>} is a chord.

@cindex arpeggio

@code{\arpeggio} typesets an arpeggio sign (a wavy vertical line) before
the chord.

@separate
@example 
   \voiceTwo
@end example 

We want the viola to have stems down, and have all the other
characteristics of a second voice. This is enforced using the
@code{\voiceTwo} command:  it inserts instructions that makes stem,
ties, slurs, etc. go down.



@separate
@example 
        g'8. b,16 
@end example 
Relative octaves work a little differently with chords.  The starting
point for the note following a chord is the first note of the chord.  So
the @code{g} gets an octave up quote: it is a fifth above the starting
note of the previous chord (the central C).

@separate
@example 
s1 s2. r4 
@end example 
@code{s} is a spacer rest.  It does not print anything, but it does have
the duration of a rest. It is useful for filling up voices that
temporarily don't play. In this case, the viola doesn't come until one
and a half measure later.

@separate
@example 
oboes = \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = oboe @{ 
@end example 
Now comes a part for two oboes.  They play homophonically, so we
print the notes as one voice that makes chords. Again, we insure that
these notes are indeed processed by precisely one context with
@code{\context}.
@separate
@example 
\voiceOne s4  g8. b,16 c8 r <e'8. g> <f16 a> 
@end example

The oboes should have stems up, so they should have stems up, to keep
them from interfering with the staff-jumping bass figure.

@separate
@example 
\grace <e8( g> < d4 )f> <c2 e> 
@end example
@cindex @code{\grace}
@cindex ornaments
@cindex grace notes
@code{\grace} introduces grace notes.  It takes one argument, in this
case a chord. A slur is introduced starting from the @code{\grace}
ending on the following chord.

@separate
@example 
\times 2/3 
@end example
@cindex tuplet
@cindex triplets
Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword.  It takes two
arguments: a fraction and a piece of music.  The duration of the piece
of music is multiplied by the fraction.  Triplets make notes occupy 2/3
of their notated duration, so in this case the fraction is 2/3.
@separate
@example 
@{ <d8 f> <e g> <f a> @} 
@end example 
The piece of music to be `tripletted' is sequential music containing
three chords.

@separate
@example 
< 
@end example 
At this point, the homophonic music splits into two rhythmically
different parts.  We can't use a sequence of chords to enter this, so
we make a `chord' of sequences to do it.  We start with the upper
voice, which continues with upward stems:
@separate
@example 
 @{ \times 2/3 @{ a8 g c @} c2 @} 
@end example

@separate
@example
\\
@end example
The easiest way to enter multiple voices is demonstrated
here. Separate the components of the voice (single notes or entire
sequences) with @code{\\} in a simultaneous music expression. The
@code{\\} separators split first voice, second voice, third voice, and
so on.

As far as relative mode is concerned, the previous note is the
@code{c'''2} of the upper voice, so we have to go an octave down for
the @code{f}.
@separate
@example 

  f,8 e e2
@} > 
@end example 
This ends the two-part section.
@separate
@example 
\stemBoth
\grace <c,8( e> <)b8. d8.-\trill> <c16 e> |  
@end example
@cindex trill
@cindex stemBoth

@code{\stemBoth} ends the forced stem directions. From here, stems are
positioned as if it were single part music.

The bass has a little hoom-pah melody to demonstrate parts switching
between staves.  Since it is repetitive, we use repeats:
@separate
@example 
hoomPah  =  \repeat unfold 8
@end example
@cindex unfolded @code{\repeat}
The unfolded repeat prints the notes in its argument as if they were
written out in full eight times.
@separate
@example
\notes \transpose c' @{
@end example
@cindex transposing
@cindex relative mode and transposing

Transposing can be done with @code{\transpose}, which takes two arguments.
The first specifies what central C should be transposed to.  The second
is the to-be-transposed music.  As you can see, in this case, the
transposition has no effect, as central C stays at central C.

The purpose of this no-op is to protect it from being interpreted as
relative notes.  Relative mode can not be used together with
transposition, so @code{\relative} will leave the contents of
@code{\hoomPah} alone.  We can use it without having to worry about
getting the motive in a wrong octave.
@separate
@cindex staff switch, manual
@cindex cross staff voice, manual
@cindex @code{\translator}

@example
        \translator Staff = down
        \stemUp
        c8
        \translator Staff = up
        \stemDown
        c'8 @}
@end example
Voices can switch between staves. Here you see two staff switching
commands. The first one moves to the lower staff, the second one to
the lower one. If you set stem directions explicitly (using the
identifiers @code{\stemUp} and @code{\stemDown}. 

@separate
@example 
bassvoices = \notes \relative c' @{
c4 g8. b,16
\autochange Staff \hoomPah \context Voice
@end example

@separate
@example
        \translator Staff = down
@end example
@cindex staff switch
@cindex cross staff voice
We want the remaining part of this melody on the lower staff, so we do a
manual staff switch here.


@separate
@example 
\context Voice = reallyLow  @{\stemDown g2 ~ | g4 c8 @} > 
@end example
@cindex tie
@cindex @code{~}
After skipping some lines, we see @code{~}.  This mark makes ties.  Note
that ties and slurs are different things.  A tie can only connect two
note heads of the same pitch, whereas a slur can connect many chords
with one curve.

@separate
@example 
\context PianoStaff 
@end example 
 A special context is needed to get cross staff beaming right.  This
context is called @code{PianoStaff}.
@separate
@example 
\context Staff = bottom < \time 2/2 \clef bass 
@end example 
The bottom staff must have a different clef.
@separate
@example 
indent = 0.0 
@end example 
To make some more room on the line, the first (in this case the only)
line is not indented.  The line still looks very cramped, but that is due
to the page layout of this document.


@ignore
[TODO:

* font-size, multi-stanza.

* Simple part combining in a Hymn
@end ignore


@node Fine tuning a piece
@section  Fine tuning a piece

In this section, we show some ways to fine tune the final output of a
piece. We do so using a single measure of a moderately complex piano
piece: a Brahms intermezzo (opus 119, no. 1). Both fragments (the
tuned and the untuned are in the @file{input/tutorial/}).

The code for the untuned example shows us some new things.

@lilypondfile[verbatim]{brahms-original.ly}


@cindex dynamics
@cindex loudness
@cindex forte
@cindex crescendo
@cindex @code{\<}
@cindex @code{\!}

The crescendo is ended at the half note by the escaped exclamation
mark @code{\!}.

Hairpin dynamics can be indicated using @code{\>} to start a
decrescendo, and @code{\!} to end one. The crescendo is started using
@code{\<} and also ended using @code{\!}. Absolute dynamics can be
entered using @code{\p}, @code{\mf}, etc. All these commands apply to
the complete chord where they are entered, but for syntactical
reasons, they must be attached to one of the notes of  the chord.

@cindex fingering instructions

Fingering indications are entered simply using @code{-@var{N}}, where
@var{N} is a digit.

Now that we have the basic piece of music entered, we want to fine
tune it, so we get something that resembles the original printed
edition by Schott/Universal Edition:

@lilypondfile{brahms-tweaked.ly}

@cindex tuning grob behavior

The basic process that we follow is that we override defaults in the
printing system. We do this by setting variables in so-called grobs.
Printed symbols are internally represented by Graphical Objects
(Grobs).  Each grob is described by a bunch of settings.  Every
setting is a variable: it has a name, and you can assign a value to
the variable. These setting determine the fonts, offsets, sub-routines
to be called on the grob, etc.  The initial values of these settings
are set in the Scheme file @file{scm/grob-description.scm}.

@cindex slur attachments

We start with the slur: the slur in the upper part, running from the F
sharp to the A, runs from stem to stem in the printed edition, while
ours starts from the note head at the left. The following property
setting forces all slurs to run from stem to stem (and not from or to
note head)

@example
  \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
@end example

More precisely, this command extends the definition of the @code{Slur}
object in the current @code{Voice}.  The variable @code{attachment} is
set to the pair of symbols @code{'(stem . stem)}. 

Although this is useful information, it is not very helpful: the
lilypond backend supports approximately 240 variables like
@code{attachment}, each with their own meaning and own type
(eg. number, symbol, list, etc). Besides slur, LilyPond has 80
different types of Grobs, that may be created in 14 different context
types besides Voice.

@cindex internal documentation
@cindex finding grobs
@cindex grob descriptiosn 

The interesting information is how you can figure out which properties
to tune for your own scores. To discover this, you must have a copy of
the internals document. This is a set of HTML pages, which should be
included if you run a binary distribution@footnote{You can also
compile them by executing @code{make -C Documentation/user/
out/lilypond-internals.html} in the source package.}. This document is
also available on the web: go to the lilypond website, click
``Documentation: other'' on the side bar, click
``lilypond-internals'', under information for users.

You might want to bookmark either the HTML files on disk, or the one
on the web. One word of caution is in place here: the internals
documentation is generated from the definitions that lily uses. For
that reason, it is strongly tied to the version of LilyPond that you
use. Before you proceed, please make sure that you are using the
documentation that corresponds to the LilyPond version that you use.

Suppose that you wanted to tune the behavior of the slur. The first
step is to get some general information on slurs in lilypond. Turn to
the index, and look up ``slur''. The section on slurs says
@quotation
The grob for this object is @internalsref{Slur}, generally in
@internalsref{Voice} context.
@end quotation

So the grob for this object is called @code{Slur}, and slurs are
created in the @code{Voice} context.  If you are reading this tutorial
in the HTML version, then you can simply click Slur, otherwise, you
must look it up the internal documentation: click ``grob overview'' ,
and select ``slur'' (the list is alphabetical.)

Now you get a list of all the properties that the slur object
supports, along with their default values. Among the properties we
find the @code{attachment} property with its default setting.
The property documentation explains that the following setting will
produce the desired effect:
@example 
 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
@end example

If you ran the previous example, you have unknowingly already used
this kind of command.  The @file{ly/property-init.ly} contains the
definition of @code{\stemUp}
@example
  stemUp = \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
@end example  


We also want to move around the fingering `3'.  In the printed edition
it is not above the stem, but a little lower, slightly left of the
stem. From the user manual, we find that the associated grob is called
@code{Fingering}, but how do we know if we should use @code{Voice} or
@code{Staff}. In many cases, @code{Voice} is a safe bet, but you can
also deduce this information from the internals documentation: if you
visit the documentation of @code{Fingering}, you will notice
@example
Fingering grobs are created by: Fingering_engraver
@end example



Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} will show you the documentation of
the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and
translating them to a @code{Fingering} grob. Such a module is called
an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver}
says,
@example
Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice and TabVoice
@end example
so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done using either
@example
  \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{}
@end example
or
@example
  \property TabVoice.Fingering \set @dots{}
@end example

Since the @code{TabVoice} is only used for tab notation, we see that
the first guess @code{Voice} was indeed correct.

@cindex setting grob properties
@cindex @code{extra-offset}

For shifting the fingering, we use the grob property
@code{extra-offset}.  The following command manually adds an offset to
the object. We move it a little to the left, and 1.8 staff space
downwards.
@example
 \property Voice.Fingering \set #'extra-offset = #'(-0.3 . -1.8) 
@end example       
The @code{extra-offset} is a low-level feature: it moves around
objects in the printout; the formatting engine is completely oblivious
to these offsets. The unit of these offsets are staff-spaces. 

@cindex reverting grob properties
@cindex undoing grob properties

We only want to offset a single grob, so after the F-sharp, we must
undo the setting. The technical term is to revert the grob property.
@example
  \property Voice.Fingering \revert #'extra-offset
@end example

@cindex property types
@cindex translator properties
@cindex grob properties
@cindex music properties


There is three different types of variables in LilyPond, something
which is confusing at first (and for some, it stays like that).
Variables such as @code{extra-offset} and @code{attachment} are called
grob properties. They are something different from the translator
properties, like @code{autoBeaming}. Finally, music expressions are
internally also stored using properties, so-called music
properties. You will encounter the latter type if you run Scheme
functions on music using @code{\apply}.

The second fingering instruction should be moved up a little, to avoid
a collision with the slur. This could be achieved with
@code{extra-offset}, but in this case, a simpler mechanism also
works. We insert an empty text between the 5 and the note. The empty
text pushes the fingering instruction away:
@example
  a^" "^#'(finger "5")
@end example

Lilypond tries to put fingering instructions closer to the notes as
text instructions. To insert an empty text (@code{^" "}) between the
finger and the note, we have disguised the fingering instruction as a
text: @code{(finger "5")}.

Normally, one would specify dynamics in a single voice, and start and
end dynamics (such as @b{f} and @b{p}) will be aligned with
hairpins. In this case, we want the decrescendo to be in a different
place from the piano sign. We achieve this by putting the dynamic
markings in different voices. The crescendo should be above the upper
staff. This can be forced by the precooked command 
@example
  \dynamicsUp
@end example

However, if you do that, the decrescendo will be too close to the
upper voice, and collide with the stems. Looking at the manual for
dynamics, we notice that ``Vertical positioning of these symbols is
handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob.''. If we turn
to the documentation of @code{DynamicLineSpanner}, we find that the
@code{DynamicLineSpanner} supports several so-called
`interfaces'. This grob not only puts dynamic objects next to the
staff (@code{side-position-interface}), but it also groups dynamic
objects (@code{axis-group-interface}), is considered a dynamic sign
itself (@code{dynamic-interface}) and is a grob: it has the
@code{grob-interface}, with all the variables that come with it.

For the moment, we are interested in the side positioning:
@quotation
 side-position-interface

  Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the
  support).  In this case, the direction signifies where to put the
  victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
@end quotation
Between the grob and its support (in this case: the notes in the voice
going down), there should be more space. This space is controlled by
@code{padding}, so we increase it.
@example
            \property Voice.DynamicLineSpanner \override #'padding = #5.0
@end example

This command is almost like the command for setting slur attachments,
but subtly different in its details.  Grob properties can be
manipulated with two commands: @code{\override} extends the grob
variables with a setting, and @code{\revert} releases this
setting. This has a certain theoretical appeal: the operations are
simple and symmetric. For practical use, it can be cumbersome.  Both
commands act like parentheses: you should carefully balance the use of
@code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The @code{\set} command is more
friendly: it first does a @code{\revert} followed by @code{\override}.

Finally, Brahms uses music notation is a slightly unorthodox way. Ties
usually happen only within one voice. In this piece, the composer
gladly produces ties that jump voices. We deal with this by faking
these ties: whenever we need such a tie, we insert a notehead in a
different voice, and blank the stem. This is done in the following
snippet of code.

@example
          \property Voice.Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
          d'
          \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent
@end example

Finally, the last tie is forced up using @code{\tieUp}.


@node An orchestral score
@section An orchestral score

@menu
* The full score::              
* Extracting an individual part::  
@end menu


Our last two examples show a way to setup the music for an orchestral
score.  When typesetting a piece for several instruments, you'll want to
create a conductor's full score, alongside several individual parts.

LilyPond is well suited for this task.  We will declare the music for
each instrument individually, giving the music of each instrument its
own name.  These pieces of music are then combined in different
@code{\score} blocks to produce different combinations of the score.

This orchestral score example consists of three input files.  In the
first file, @file{os-music.ly}, we define the music for all
instruments.  This file will be used both for producing the score and
the separate parts. Other files reference this file by doing
@code{\include "os-music.ly"}.

If you were to run LilyPond on this file, no printable output would be
produced.

@example
% os-music.ly
\header @{
  title = "Zo, goed lieverd?"
  subtitle = "How's, this babe?"
  composer = "JCN"
  opus = "1"
  piece = "Laid back"
@}
global = @{
  \time 2/4
  \skip 2*4 \bar "|."
@}
Key = \notes \key as \major
flautoI = \notes\relative c'' @{
  f8 g f g f g f g
  bes as bes as bes as bes as
@}
flautoII = \notes\relative c'' @{
  as8 bes as bes R1 d4 ~ d
@}
tromboI = \notes\relative c'' @{
  c4. c8 c8 c4. es4 r as, r
@}
tromboII = \notes\relative c'' @{
  as4. as8 as8 as4. R1*1/2 as4 es'
@}
timpani = \notes\relative c, @{
  \times 2/3 @{ f4 f f @}
  \times 4/5 @{ as8 as as as as @}
  R1
@}
corno = \notes\relative c' @{
   bes4 d f, bes d f, bes d
@}
@end example

We will not go through the input line by line, but only indicate and
explain the new elements.


@separate
@example
global = @{
  \time 2/4
  \skip 2*4 \bar "|.";
@}
@end example

Declare setting to be used globally.  The @code{\skip} command produces
no output, but moves forward in time: in this case, the duration of a
half note (@code{2}), and that four times (@code{*4}).  This brings us
to the end of the piece, and we can set the end bar.

@separate
@example
Key = \notes \key as \major
@end example
Declare the key signature of the piece and assign it to the identifier
@var{Key}.  Later on, we'll use @code{\Key} for all staves except those
for transposing instruments.

@node The full score
@subsection The full score


The second file, @file{input/tutorial/os-score.ly} reads the definitions of the first
(@file{input/tutorial/os-music.ly}), and defines the @code{\score} block for the full
conductor's score.


@example
% os-score.ly
\include "os-music.ly"
\include "paper13.ly"

#(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
#(define text-flat '((font-relative-size . -2)
         (music "accidentals--1")))

\score @{
  <
    \global
    \property Score.BarNumber \override #'padding = #3
    \context StaffGroup = woodwind <
      \context Staff = flauti <
        \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
        \property Staff.instrument = "2 Flauti"
        \property Staff.instr = "Fl."
        \Key
        \context Voice=one @{ \voiceOne \flautoI @}
        \context Voice=two @{ \voiceTwo \flautoII @}
      >
    >
    \context StaffGroup = timpani <
      \context Staff = timpani <
        \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"timpani"
        \property Staff.instrument = #'(lines "Timpani" "(C-G)")
        \property Staff.instr = #"Timp."
        \clef bass
        \Key
        \timpani
      >
    >
    \context StaffGroup = brass <
      \context Staff = trombe <
        \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"trumpet"
        \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "2 Trombe" "(C)")
        \property Staff.instr = #`(lines "Tbe." "(C)")
        \Key
        \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
          \context Thread=one \tromboI
          \context Thread=two \tromboII
      >
      \context Staff = corni <
        \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"french horn"
        \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "Corno"
          (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")"))
        \property Staff.instr = #`(lines "Cor."
          (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")"))
        \property Staff.transposing = #3
        \notes \key bes \major
        \context Voice=one \corno
      >
    >
  >
  \paper @{
    indent = 15 * \staffspace
    linewidth = 60 * \staffspace
    textheight = 90 * \staffspace
    \translator@{
      \HaraKiriStaffContext
    @}
  @}
  \midi @{
    \tempo 4 = 75
  @}
@}
@end example

@center @strong{Zo, goed lieverd?}
@sp 1
@center How's, this babe?
@flushright
Opus 1.
@end flushright
@flushleft
@sc{Laid back}
@end flushleft

@lilypondfile{os-score.ly}

@separate
@example
\include "os-music.ly"
@end example
First, we need to include the music definitions we made in
@file{os-music.ly}.

@separate
@example
#(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
@end example

This piece of Scheme code sets the Scheme variable
@code{point-and-click} to the value @var{line-column-location} (which
itself is a Scheme procedure).

Editing input files can be complicated if you're working with large
files: if you're digitizing existing music, you have to synchronize
the .ly file, the sheet music on your lap and the sheet music on the
screen.  The point-and-click mechanism makes it easy to find the
origin of an error in the LY file: when you view the file with Xdvi
and click on a note, your editor will jump to the spot where that note
was entered.  For more information, see @ref{Point and click}.


@separate
@example
#(define text-flat '((font-relative-size . -2)
         (music "accidentals--1")))
@end example

When naming the tuning of the french horn, we'll need a piece of text
with a flat sign.  LilyPond has a mechanism for font selection and
kerning called Scheme markup text (See @ref{Text markup}).  The flat
sign is taken from the music font, and its name is @code{accidentals--1}
(The natural sign is called @code{accidentals-0}).  The default font is
too big for text, so we select a relative size of @code{-2}.

@separate
@example
  <
    \global
@end example
Of course, all staves are simultaneous and use the same global settings.

@separate
@example
    \property Score.BarNumber \override #'padding = #3
@end example
LilyPond prints bar numbers at the start of each line, but
unfortunately, they end up a bit too close to the staff in this
example.  A bar number internally is a Grob called @var{BarNumber}.
BarNumber Grobs can be manipulated through their
@var{side-position-interface}.  One of the properties of a
@var{side-position-interface} that can be tweaked is the
@var{padding}: the amount of extra space that is put between this Grob
and other Grobs.  We set the padding to three staff spaces.

You can find information on all these kind of properties in LilyPond's
automatically generated documentation in
@ifnottex
@ref{ (lilypond-internals)lilypond-internals, LilyPond Internals}.
@end ifnottex
@iftex
the online documentation.
@end iftex

@separate
@example
    \context StaffGroup = woodwind <
      \context Staff = flauti <
@end example
A new notation context: the @code{StaffGroup}.  @code{StaffGroup} can
hold one or more @code{Staff}'s, and will print a big bracket at the
left of the score.  Start a new staff group for the woodwind section
(just the flutes in this case).  Immediately after that, we start the
staff for the two flutes, that also play simultaneously.

@separate
@example
        \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
@end example
Specify the instrument for MIDI output (see @ref{MIDI instrument
names}).

@separate
@example
        \property Staff.instrument = "2 Flauti"
        \property Staff.instr = "Fl."
@end example
And define the instrument names to be printed in the margin,
@code{instrument} for the first line of the score, @code{instr} for the
rest of the score.

@separate
@example
        \Key
@end example
The flutes play in the default key.

@separate
@example
        \context Voice=one @{ \voiceOne \flautoI @}
        \context Voice=two @{ \voiceTwo \flautoII @}
@end example
Last come the actual flute parts.  Remember that we're still in
simultaneous mode.  We name both voices differently, so that LilyPond
will actually create two Voice contexts.  The flute parts are simple, so
we specify manually which voice is which: @code{\voiceOne} forces the
direction of stems, beams, slurs and ties up, @code{\voiceTwo} sets
directions down.

@separate
@example
      >
    >
@end example
Close the flutes staff and woodwind staff group.

@separate
@example
        \property Staff.instrument = #'(lines "Timpani" "(C-G)")
@end example
The timpani staff only shows a new piece of scheme markup, it sets two
lines of text.

@separate
@example
        \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
          \context Thread=one \tromboI
          \context Thread=two \tromboII
@end example
You have seen the notation contexts Staff and Voice, but here's a new
one: Thread.  One or more Threads can be part of a Voice.  The Thread
takes care of note heads and rests, the Voice combine note heads onto a
stem.

For the trumpets we use the automatic part combiner (see @ref{Automatic
part combining}) to combine the two simultaneous trumpet parts onto the
trumpet staff.  Each trumpet gets its own Thread context, which must be
named @code{one} and @code{two}).  The part combiner makes these two
threads share a Voice when they're similar, and splits the threads up
when they're different.

@separate
@example
        \property Staff.instrument = #`(lines "Corno"
          (columns "(E" ,text-flat ")"))
@end example
The french horn has the most complex scheme markup name, made up of two
lines of text.  The second line has three elements (columns), the @code{(E},
the flat sign @code{text-flat} that we defined before and a final @code{")"}.
Note that we use a backquote instead of an ordinary quote at the
beginning of the Scheme expression to be able to access the
@code{text-flat} identifier, `unquoting' it with a @code{,}.

@separate
@example
        \property Staff.transposing = #3
@end example
The french horn is to be tuned in E-flat, so we tell the MIDI backend to
transpose this staff by three steps.

Note how we can choose different tuning for entering, printing and
playing, using @code{\transpose} and the MIDI Staff property
@var{transposing}.

@separate
@example
        \notes \key bes \major
@end example
Therefore, it has a different key.

@separate
@example
    indent = 15 * \staffspace
    linewidth = 60 * \staffspace
@end example
We specify a big indent for the first line and a small linewidth for this
tutorial.

@separate

Usually, LilyPond's predefined setup of notation contexts (Thread,
Voice, Staff, Staffgroup, Score) is just fine.  But in this case, we
want a different type of Staff context.

@example
    \translator@{
      \HaraKiriStaffContext
    @}
@end example

In orchestral scores, it often happens that one instrument has only
rests during one line of the score.  The @code{HaraKiriStaffContext} can
be used as a regular @code{StaffContext} drop-in and will take care of
the automatic removing of empty staves.

@node Extracting an individual part
@subsection Extracting an individual part

The third file, @file{os-flute-2.ly} also reads the definitions of the
first (@file{os-music.ly}), and defines the @code{\score} block for the
second flute part.

@example
\include "os-music.ly"
\include "paper16.ly"

\score @{
  \context Staff <
    \property Score.skipBars = ##t
    \property Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
    \global
    \Key
    \flautoII
  >
  \header @{
    instrument = "Flauto II"
  @}
  \paper @{
    linewidth = 80 * \staffspace
    textheight = 200 * \staffspace
  @}
  \midi @{
    \tempo 4 = 75
  @}
@}
@end example

@center @strong{Zo, goed lieverd?}
@sp 1
@center How's, this babe?
@center @emph{Flauto II}
@flushright
Opus 1.
@end flushright
@flushleft
@sc{Laid back}
@end flushleft
@lilypondfile{os-flute-2.ly}


Because we separated the music definitions from the @code{\score}
instantiations, we can easily define a second score with the music of
the second flute.  This then is the part for the second flute player.
Of course, we make separate parts for all individual instruments.

@separate
@example
    \flautoII
@end example
In this individual part the second flute has a whole staff for itself,
so we don't want to force stem or tie directions.

@separate
@example
  \header @{
    instrument = "Flauto II"
  @}
@end example
The @code{\header} definitions were also read from @file{os-music.ly},
but we need to set the instrument for this particular score.

@separate
@example
    \property Score.skipBars = ##t
@end example
In the conductor's full score, all bars with rests are printed, but for
the individual parts, we want to contract pieces of consecutive empty
bars.  LilyPond will do this if Score's @var{skipBars} property to
true. 


@node Integrating text and music
@section Integrating text and music

Sometimes, you might want to use music examples in a text that you are
writing. For example, if you are writing a musicological treatise, a
songbook, or (like us) the LilyPond manual.  You can make such texts by
hand, simply by importing a PostScript figure into your wordprocessor.
However, there is a also an automated procedure:

If you use HTML, La@TeX{} or texinfo, you can mix text and LilyPond
code. A script called @code{lilypond-book} will extract the music
fragments, run LilyPond on them, and put back the resulting notation.
This utility program is described fully in the chapter @ref{Insert
music snippets into your texts using lilypond-book}. Here we show a
small example. Since the example also contains explanatory text, we
won't comment on the contents.

@example
\documentclass[a4paper]@{article@}
\begin@{document@}

In a lilypond-book document, you can freely mix music and text. For
example:
\begin@{lilypond@}
  \score @{ \notes \relative c' @{
     c2 g'2 \times 2/3 @{ f8 e d @} c'2 g4
  @} @}
\end@{lilypond@}
Notice that the music line length matches the margin settings of the
document.

If you have no \verb+\score+ block in the fragment,
\texttt@{lilypond-book@} will supply one:

\begin@{lilypond@}
  c'4
\end@{lilypond@}

In the example you see here, a number of things happened: a
\verb+\score+ block was added, and the line width was set to natural
length. You can specify many more options using  \LaTeX style options
in brackets:

\begin[verbatim,11pt,singleline,
  fragment,relative,intertext="hi there!"]@{lilypond@}
  c'4 f bes es
\end@{lilypond@}

\texttt@{verbatim@} also shows the LilyPond code, \texttt@{11pt@} selects
the default music size, \texttt@{fragment@} adds a score block,
\texttt@{relative@} uses relative mode for the fragment, and
\texttt@{intertext@} specifies what to print between the
\texttt@{verbatim@} code and the music.

If you include large examples into the text, it may be more convenient
to put the example in a separate file:

\lilypondfile[printfilename]@{sammartini.ly@}

The \texttt@{printfilename@} option adds the file name to the output.

\end@{document@}
@end example

Under Unix, you can view the results as follows.
@example
$ cd input/tutorial
$ lilypond-book --outdir=out/ lilbook.tex
lilypond-book (GNU LilyPond) 1.3.146
Reading `input/tutorial/lilbook.tex'
Reading `input/tutorial/sammartini.ly'
@var{lots of stuff deleted}
Writing `out/lilbook.latex'
$ cd out
$ latex lilbook.latex
@var{lots of stuff deleted}
$ xdvi lilbook 
@end example

Notice the @code{outdir} option to lilypond-book. Running lilypond-book
and running latex creates a lot of temporary files, and you wouldn't want
those to clutter up your working directory. Hence, we have them created
in a separate subdirectory.

The result more or less looks like this: 

@separate

In a lilypond-book document, you can freely mix music and text. For
example:
@lilypond
  \score { \notes \relative c' {
     c2 g'2 \times 2/3 { f8 e d } c'2 g4
  } }
@end lilypond
Notice that the music line length matches the margin settings of the
document.

If you have no @code{\score} block in the fragment,
@code{lilypond-book} will supply one:

@lilypond
  c'4
@end lilypond

In the example you see here, a number of things happened: a
@code{\score} block was added, and the line width was set to natural
length. You can specify many more options using  La@TeX{} style options
in brackets:

@lilypond[verbatim,11pt,singleline,
  fragment,relative,intertext="hi there!"]
  c'4 f bes es
@end lilypond

@code{verbatim} also shows the LilyPond code, @code{11pt} selects
the default music size, @code{fragment} adds a score block,
@code{relative} uses relative mode for the fragment, and
@code{intertext} specifies what to print between the
@code{verbatim} code and the music.

If you include large examples into the text, it may be more convenient
to put the example in a separate file:

@lilypondfile[printfilename]{sammartini.ly}

The @code{printfilename} option adds the file name to the output.
@node  End of tutorial
@section End of tutorial
         
This is the end of the tutorial. If you came up till here, and
have understood everything, then you're now an accomplished lilypond
hacker. From here, you can  try fiddling with input
files, coming back to the reference  manual for information.
Also don't forget to check out the 
@ifhtml
@uref{../../templates/out-www/templates.html,templates},
@uref{../../test/out-www/test.html,example} and 
@uref{../../regression/out-www/regression.html,feature test}
snippets.
@end ifhtml
@ifnothtml
templates, example and feature test snippets.
@end ifnothtml
If you want to see real action lilypond, then head over to
@uref{http://www.mutopiaproject.org}, which has many examples of
classical music typeset by LilyPond.