5 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
6 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
7 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
9 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
18 @macro internalsref{NAME}
19 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
22 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
23 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
29 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
31 @macro internalsref{NAME}
38 @c .{Reference Manual}
40 @node Reference Manual
41 @chapter Reference Manual
44 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
47 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
48 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
49 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
50 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
52 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
53 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
54 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
55 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
78 * Skipping corrected music::
79 * Interpretation context::
89 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
90 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
91 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
92 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
93 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
94 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
96 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
97 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
98 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
100 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
102 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
103 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
104 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
105 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
106 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
107 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
111 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
114 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
117 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
118 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
119 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
120 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
121 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
122 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
123 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
126 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
127 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
128 design of the program.
130 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
136 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
137 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
138 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
139 @code{\paper} declarations.
150 * Defining pitch names::
151 * Easy Notation note heads ::
158 A note specification has the form
161 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
164 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
165 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
166 A reminder accidental
167 @cindex reminder accidental
169 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
170 cautionary accidental,
171 @cindex cautionary accidental
172 @cindex parenthesized accidental
173 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
174 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
176 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
177 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
180 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
188 @cindex Note specification
190 @cindex entering notes
192 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
194 @cindex @code{\pitch}
196 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
199 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
201 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
202 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
203 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
204 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
205 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
207 @cindex note names, Dutch
209 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
210 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
211 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
212 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
213 both forms are accepted.
215 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
216 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
217 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
218 the names they define are:
221 Note Names sharp flat
222 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
223 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
224 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
225 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
226 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
227 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
228 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
236 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
237 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
238 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
239 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
241 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
242 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
250 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
252 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
256 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
257 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
259 For polyphonic music, it can be convenient to specify the rest position
260 directly. You can do that by entering a note, with the keyword
261 @code{\rest} appended, e.g. Rest collisions will leave these rests alone.
263 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
273 @cindex Invisible rest
276 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
279 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
283 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
284 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
286 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
288 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
289 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
291 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
292 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
296 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
299 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
302 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
303 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
308 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
313 @subsection Durations
317 @cindex @code{\duration}
319 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
321 \duration @var{scmduration}
323 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
324 @ref{Duration} for more information.
327 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
328 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
329 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
333 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
335 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
341 \notes \relative c'' {
343 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
345 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
350 \remove "Clef_engraver"
351 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
352 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
353 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
359 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
360 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
361 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
362 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
363 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
365 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
366 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
370 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
371 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
372 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
376 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
382 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
383 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
384 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
396 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
397 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
398 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
399 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
402 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
403 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
406 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
407 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
409 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
410 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
411 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
414 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
415 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
416 exactly the same concept.
418 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
419 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
422 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
423 @internalsref{Voice} context.
427 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
428 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
429 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
431 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
432 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
433 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
441 @cindex @code{\times}
443 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
446 @cindex @code{\times}
448 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
451 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
452 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
453 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
454 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
455 their written length:
457 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
458 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
461 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
462 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
463 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
465 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
466 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
467 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
470 The format of the number is determined by the property
471 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
472 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
473 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
476 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
477 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
479 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
480 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
481 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
482 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
483 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
484 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
485 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
486 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
487 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
488 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
489 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
492 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
493 @cindex tuplet formatting
495 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
496 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
498 @c . {Defining pitch names}
499 @node Defining pitch names
500 @subsection Defining pitch names
502 @cindex defining pitch names
503 @cindex pitch names, defining
505 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
506 syntax is as follows.
508 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
509 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
511 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
512 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
515 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
516 specific examples on how to do this.
519 @node Easy Notation note heads
520 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
522 @cindex easy notation
525 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
526 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
527 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
529 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
530 \include "paper23.ly"
532 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
533 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
537 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
538 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
539 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
545 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
546 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
547 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
552 @section Staff notation
554 @cindex Staff notation
566 @subsection Key signature
571 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
574 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
577 @cindex @code{\minor}
578 @cindex @code{\major}
579 @cindex @code{\minor}
580 @cindex @code{\ionian}
581 @cindex @code{\locrian}
582 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
583 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
584 @cindex @code{\lydian}
585 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
586 @cindex @code{\dorian}
588 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
589 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
590 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
591 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
592 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
594 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
595 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
598 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
599 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
601 @cindex @code{keySignature}
608 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
616 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
617 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
618 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
619 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
623 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
625 Supported clef-names include
627 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
629 @item treble, violin, G, G2
638 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
653 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
654 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
655 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
661 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
670 @item clefs-vaticana_do
671 Editio Vaticana style do clef
672 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
673 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
674 @item clefs-medicaea_do
675 Editio Medicaea style do clef
676 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
677 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
678 @item clefs-mensural1_c
679 modern style mensural C clef
680 @item clefs-mensural2_c
681 historic style small mensural C clef
682 @item clefs-mensural3_c
683 historic style big mensural C clef
684 @item clefs-mensural1_f
685 historic style traditional mensural F clef
686 @item clefs-mensural2_f
687 historic style new mensural F clef
688 @item clefs-mensural_g
689 historic style mensural G clef
690 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
691 historic style hufnagel do clef
692 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
693 historic style hufnagel fa clef
694 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
695 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
696 @item clefs-percussion
697 modern style percussion clef
700 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
701 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
702 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
705 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
706 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
707 @cindex hufnagel clefs
710 @c . {Time signature}
712 @subsection Time signature
713 @cindex Time signature
717 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
720 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
722 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
724 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
725 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
726 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
729 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
730 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
733 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
734 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
736 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
738 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
740 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
742 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
744 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
748 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
749 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
751 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
753 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
760 @cindex partial measure
761 @cindex measure, partial
762 @cindex shorten measures
763 @cindex @code{\partial}
765 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
766 @code{\partial} command:
768 \partial @var{duration}
771 Internally, this is a shortcut for
774 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
778 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
779 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
782 @node Unmetered music
783 @subsection Unmetered music
785 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
786 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
787 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
789 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
791 \property Score.timing = ##f
793 \property Score.timing = ##t
797 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
804 @subsection Bar lines
808 @cindex measure lines
815 This is a shortcut for doing
817 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
819 The following bar types are available
821 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
834 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
838 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
840 @cindex repeatCommands
841 @cindex defaultBarType
843 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
844 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
845 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
846 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
848 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
849 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
850 @code{whichBar} settings.
852 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
859 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
860 typeset with LilyPond.
862 The easiest way to enter such fragments, is the Scheme function
863 @code{voicify-music}. It will split chords using the separator
864 @code{\\}, to make multiple voices. You can use it for small,
865 short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single chords:
867 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
868 \context Voice = VA \apply #voicify-music \relative c'' {
869 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ c, \\ f \\ d >
873 The function @code{voicify-music} instantiates @internalsref{Voice}
874 contexts, bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
876 To explicity typeset polyphonic music, instantiate a separate Voice
877 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
879 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
881 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
882 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
885 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
886 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
887 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
888 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
889 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
891 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
892 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
899 \context Voice=three {
900 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
902 \context Voice=four {
903 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
908 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
909 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
912 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
914 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
915 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
916 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
919 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
920 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
922 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
924 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
926 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
929 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
933 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
935 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
937 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
938 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
942 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
943 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision}
944 handles vertical shifting of rests.
952 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
953 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
954 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
955 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
960 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
961 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
962 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
963 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
967 @c . {Automatic beams}
968 @subsection Automatic beams
970 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
971 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
972 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
975 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
976 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
977 or at durations specified by the properties in
978 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
979 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
981 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
982 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
984 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
985 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
987 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
988 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
989 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
990 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
991 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
994 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
995 you can use the following:
997 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
998 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
1000 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1001 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
1003 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1004 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1006 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1007 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1009 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1010 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1011 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1013 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1014 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1015 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1016 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1018 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1019 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1022 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1023 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1024 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1025 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1029 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1031 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1032 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1034 @cindex automatic beam generation
1036 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1038 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1039 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1040 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1044 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1045 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1046 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1047 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1048 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1049 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1050 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1053 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1054 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1055 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1058 @cindex Automatic beams
1059 @subsection Manual beams
1060 @cindex beams, manual
1064 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1065 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1066 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1067 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1068 after the last note:
1070 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1072 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1075 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1078 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1080 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1081 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1082 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1083 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1084 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1086 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1089 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1092 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1094 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1095 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1096 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1097 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1098 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1101 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1103 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1104 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1105 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1109 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1110 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1112 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1113 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1114 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1118 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1119 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1121 @node Expressive marks
1122 @section Expressive marks
1137 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1138 They are entered using parentheses:
1140 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1141 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1145 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1146 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1147 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1148 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1149 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1150 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1152 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1153 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1154 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1156 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1160 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1161 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1162 stems might look better:
1164 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1165 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1166 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1168 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1173 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1174 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1175 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1176 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1177 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1178 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1179 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1180 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1182 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1183 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1184 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1185 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1186 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1187 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1188 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1193 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1194 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1196 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1198 @node Phrasing slurs
1199 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1201 @cindex phrasing slurs
1202 @cindex phrasing marks
1204 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1205 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1208 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1209 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1212 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1213 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1214 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1217 @subsection Breath marks
1219 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1220 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1222 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1231 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1232 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1241 @cindex beats per minute
1242 @cindex metronome marking
1244 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1246 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1248 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1251 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1256 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1257 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1258 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1263 @subsection Text spanners
1264 @cindex Text spanners
1266 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1267 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1268 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1271 \spanrequest \start "text"
1272 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1274 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1275 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1276 style is set through grob properties.
1278 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1279 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1280 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1281 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1282 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1283 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1284 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1285 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1303 @subsection Articulations
1304 @cindex Articulations
1306 @cindex articulations
1310 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1311 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1312 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1313 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1314 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1315 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1316 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1322 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1323 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1324 \context Staff \notes {
1325 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1326 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1327 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1328 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1329 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1330 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1331 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1332 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1334 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1335 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1336 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1337 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1338 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1339 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1340 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1341 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1342 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1346 linewidth = 5.875\in
1352 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1353 @lilypond[singleline]
1355 \notes \context Voice {
1356 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1357 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1363 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1370 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1371 changes, some markup texts would be needed:
1372 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1373 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1378 @cindex @code{\script}
1383 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1384 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1385 accesses a script definition from the table:
1391 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1392 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1394 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1398 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1399 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1401 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1402 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1403 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1408 @subsection Text scripts
1409 @cindex Text scripts
1411 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1412 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1415 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1416 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1417 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1419 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1420 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1423 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1424 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1426 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1427 special symbols in text scripts.
1431 @subsection Grace notes
1440 @cindex @code{\grace}
1443 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1445 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1446 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1447 The syntax is as follows.
1449 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1452 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1455 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1457 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1459 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1461 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1466 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1467 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1468 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1472 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1473 run-time errors: @example
1474 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1476 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1477 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1478 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1479 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1480 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1491 @subsection Glissando
1494 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1496 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1497 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1499 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1505 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1512 @subsection Dynamics
1525 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1535 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1536 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1537 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1538 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1539 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1541 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1542 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1548 @cindex @code{\decr}
1549 @cindex @code{\rced}
1555 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1556 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1557 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1558 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1559 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1560 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1561 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1562 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1563 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1565 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1566 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1567 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1570 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1571 is an example how to do it:
1576 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1578 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1579 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1584 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1585 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1589 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1590 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1591 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1592 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1593 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1594 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1596 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1597 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1598 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1606 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1608 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1609 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1610 different variants of repeats.
1614 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1615 output, and entering repetitive music.
1618 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1619 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1622 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1623 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1624 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1630 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1636 * Manual repeat commands::
1638 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1643 @subsection Repeat syntax
1645 The syntax for repeats is
1648 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1651 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1652 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1654 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1656 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1658 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1660 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1661 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1663 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1664 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1667 With alternative endings:
1668 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1670 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1671 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1674 Folded repeats look like this:
1677 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1679 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1680 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1684 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1685 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1686 the specified number of repeats.
1688 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1692 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1693 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1698 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1700 @cindex expanding repeats
1702 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1707 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1708 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1709 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1710 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1711 are also not repeated.
1713 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1714 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1716 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1717 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1718 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1720 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1721 off explicitly, for example by doing
1723 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1725 in all but the top staff.
1727 @node Manual repeat commands
1728 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1730 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1732 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1733 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1741 @item (volta . @var{text})
1742 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1744 Stop a running volta bracket
1747 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1749 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1751 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1756 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1758 @node Tremolo repeats
1759 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1760 @cindex tremolo beams
1762 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1764 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1766 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1767 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1768 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1769 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1770 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1775 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1776 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1781 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1782 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1784 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1785 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1786 @cindex tremolo marks
1787 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1789 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1790 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1791 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1792 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1793 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1795 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1796 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1802 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1805 @node Measure repeats
1806 @subsection Measure repeats
1808 @cindex percent repeats
1809 @cindex measure repeats
1811 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1812 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1813 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1814 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1816 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1817 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1818 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1822 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1823 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1827 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1828 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1830 @node Rhythmic music
1831 @section Rhythmic music
1838 @node Rhythmic staves
1839 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1841 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1842 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1843 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1845 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1846 \context RhythmicStaff {
1848 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1855 @section Piano music
1857 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1858 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1859 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1860 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1861 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1862 other pianistic peculiarities.
1865 * Automatic staff changes::
1866 * Manual staff switches::
1869 * Voice follower lines::
1873 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1874 @node Automatic staff changes
1875 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1876 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1878 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1879 staff. The syntax for this is
1881 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1883 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1884 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1885 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1886 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1887 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1889 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1890 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1891 \context Staff = "up" {
1892 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1893 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1894 \context Staff = "down" {
1900 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1901 terminating too soon.
1904 @node Manual staff switches
1905 @subsection Manual staff switches
1907 @cindex manual staff switches
1908 @cindex staff switch, manual
1910 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1912 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1914 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1915 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1916 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1919 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1920 completeness we give it here.
1921 @cindex @code{\translator}
1923 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1925 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1926 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1927 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1928 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1936 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1937 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1938 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1940 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1941 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1943 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1944 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1945 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1948 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1949 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
1950 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation of
1951 @rgrob{SustainPedal}, for example, for more information.
1953 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
1954 @code{pedal-type} property of SustainPedal grobs:
1956 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1957 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
1958 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 a'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1961 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
1962 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
1964 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1965 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
1966 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 c'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1969 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
1970 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
1971 for a sostenuto pedal:
1973 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1974 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1977 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
1978 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
1979 @code{PianoPedalBracket} grobs (see the detailed documentation of
1980 @rgrob{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
1981 may be extended to the end of the note head.
1983 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1984 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
1985 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1992 @subsection Arpeggio
1995 @cindex broken arpeggio
1996 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1998 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1999 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
2002 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2003 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
2006 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2007 to the chords in both staves, and set
2008 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
2010 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2011 \context PianoStaff <
2012 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2013 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2014 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2018 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
2019 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}. @internalsref{Arpeggio}
2021 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
2022 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
2023 @code{arpeggio-type}.
2025 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2027 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2029 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2035 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2036 arpeggiate the chord.
2038 @lil ypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2039 \context PianoStaff <
2040 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2041 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #'bracket
2042 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2043 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2051 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
2056 @node Voice follower lines
2057 @subsection Voice follower lines
2059 @cindex follow voice
2060 @cindex staff switching
2063 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2065 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2066 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2067 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2069 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2070 \context PianoStaff <
2071 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2072 \context Staff \context Voice {
2074 \translator Staff=two
2077 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2081 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2091 * Automatic syllable durations::
2097 @subsection Lyrics mode
2100 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2101 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2105 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2107 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2108 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2109 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2110 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2112 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2113 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2114 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2117 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2118 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2119 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2122 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2125 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2126 @node Printing lyrics
2127 @subsection Printing lyrics
2130 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2132 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2133 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2134 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2136 \notes \relative c' {
2138 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2139 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2140 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2141 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2143 share the soft -- ware; }
2147 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2148 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2149 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2150 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2151 interpreted as melismata.
2153 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2156 @cindex lyric extender
2159 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2160 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2161 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2162 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2163 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2168 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2169 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2170 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2171 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2172 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2173 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2175 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2177 @node Automatic syllable durations
2178 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2179 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2181 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2182 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2184 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2185 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2188 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2191 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2192 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2193 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2195 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2197 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2198 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2201 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2204 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2205 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2207 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2211 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2212 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2213 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2215 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2217 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2218 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2220 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2221 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2224 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2225 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2226 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2228 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2231 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2233 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2238 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2239 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2242 @subsection More stanzas
2246 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2247 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2248 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2250 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2251 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2252 In the following example, the Voice
2253 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2254 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2257 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2260 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2262 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2263 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2264 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2265 Hi, my name is bert. }
2266 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2267 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2268 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2273 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2274 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2275 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2281 @cindex stanza numbering
2289 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2290 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2291 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2292 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2293 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2294 name, and print them as name.
2297 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2298 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2308 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2309 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2312 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2313 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2314 interpret this as an inversion.
2318 * Printing named chords::
2323 @subsection Chords mode
2326 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2327 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2328 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2329 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2331 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2332 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2334 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2336 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2339 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2340 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2341 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2342 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2343 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2344 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2345 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2346 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2348 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2349 using @code{\transpose}.
2351 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2355 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2365 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2366 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2367 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2368 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2369 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2370 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2371 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2373 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2376 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2382 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2383 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2386 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2395 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2396 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2397 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2398 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2400 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2410 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2411 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2412 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2413 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2415 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2426 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2427 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2430 @c . {Printing named chords}
2431 @node Printing named chords
2432 @subsection Printing named chords
2434 @cindex printing chord names
2438 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2439 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2440 directly using simultaneous music.
2442 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2444 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2448 \context ChordNames \scheme
2449 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2454 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2455 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2456 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2461 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2465 \context ChordNames {
2466 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2468 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2472 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2473 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2474 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2475 are entered as a list of pitches:
2477 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2486 \context ChordNames \scheme
2487 \context Staff \scheme
2493 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2494 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2495 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2496 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2497 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2499 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2500 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2501 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2505 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2506 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2516 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2517 \context ChordNames = american {
2518 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2519 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2520 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2521 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2522 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2523 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2530 @section Writing parts
2532 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2533 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2534 problems in orchestral music.
2541 * Instrument names::
2543 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2544 * Multi measure rests::
2545 * Automatic part combining::
2546 * Hara kiri staves::
2549 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2550 @node Rehearsal marks
2551 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2552 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2554 @cindex @code{\mark}
2558 \mark @var{unsigned}
2563 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2564 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2565 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2566 automatically incremented.
2568 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2574 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2579 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2580 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2583 @subsection Bar numbers
2587 @cindex measure numbers
2588 @cindex currentBarNumber
2590 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2591 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2592 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2594 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2597 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2598 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2602 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2605 @node Instrument names
2606 @subsection Instrument names
2608 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2609 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2610 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2611 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2613 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2614 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2617 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2621 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2623 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2626 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2627 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2635 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2636 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2637 the name to avoid a collision.
2640 @subsection Transpose
2642 @cindex transposition of pitches
2643 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2645 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2648 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2651 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2654 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2655 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2656 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2659 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2662 { \key e \major c d e f }
2664 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2665 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2669 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2670 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2671 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2673 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2674 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2676 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2678 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2679 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2680 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2682 @cindex @code{transposing}
2685 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2686 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2689 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2690 @node Multi measure rests
2691 @subsection Multi measure rests
2692 @cindex Multi measure rests
2696 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2697 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2699 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2700 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2701 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2704 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2705 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2708 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2711 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2713 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2717 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2718 a single multimeasure rest.
2720 @cindex condensing rests
2722 @node Automatic part combining
2723 @subsection Automatic part combining
2724 @cindex automatic part combining
2725 @cindex part combiner
2728 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2729 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2730 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2731 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2732 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2733 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2735 The syntax for part combining is
2738 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2740 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2741 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2742 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2745 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2746 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2748 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2750 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2751 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2754 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2760 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2761 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2762 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2763 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2764 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2767 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2768 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2770 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2772 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2773 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2774 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2777 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2783 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2784 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2785 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2786 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2787 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2788 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2792 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2793 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2796 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2798 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2799 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2802 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2808 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2809 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2810 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2812 @node Hara kiri staves
2813 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2815 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2816 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2817 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2818 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2819 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2820 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2823 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2824 context. It is available as the context identifier
2825 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2826 example disappears in the second line.
2830 \notes \relative c' <
2831 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2832 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2836 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2849 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2850 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2851 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2852 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2853 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2858 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2863 \consists Custos_engraver
2869 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2870 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2871 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2872 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2875 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2876 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2877 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2878 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2879 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2886 \consists Custos_engraver
2887 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2892 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2897 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2898 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2905 @section Figured bass
2907 @cindex Basso continuo
2909 TODO. see figured-bass.ly
2911 @c . {Tuning output}
2913 @section Tuning output
2915 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2916 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2917 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2918 ways to do just that.
2920 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2921 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2922 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2923 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2925 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2926 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2927 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2928 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2929 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2932 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2933 * Tuning per grob ::
2941 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2942 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2944 @cindex grob description
2948 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2949 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2950 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2952 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2953 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2956 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2957 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2958 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2959 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2963 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2970 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2971 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2974 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2975 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2976 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2981 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2982 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2986 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2987 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2989 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2990 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2993 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2994 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2995 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2996 result as the previous one.
2998 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2999 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
3002 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
3005 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
3007 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3008 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3009 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
3011 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
3012 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
3015 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
3016 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
3017 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
3018 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
3019 must be carefully balanced.
3021 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
3024 A clumsy but correct form:
3026 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
3029 Shorter version of the same:
3031 \override \set \set \revert
3034 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3037 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3040 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3043 \set \set \set \revert
3046 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3047 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3048 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3049 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3050 automatic beaming settings.
3054 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3055 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3056 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3059 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
3060 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
3061 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
3062 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
3063 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
3064 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
3065 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
3066 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3071 @node Tuning per grob
3072 @subsection Tuning per grob
3074 @cindex \outputproperty
3076 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3077 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3079 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3081 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3082 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3083 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3084 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3085 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3087 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3088 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3090 Here are some random examples.
3093 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3094 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3097 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3099 \context Staff \outputproperty
3100 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3101 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3105 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3107 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3108 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3109 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3110 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3111 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3114 \notes\relative c''' {
3115 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3116 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3117 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3125 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3126 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3132 @subsection What to tune?
3134 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3135 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3136 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3138 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3139 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3140 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3141 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3142 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3143 where you got this manual.
3145 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3148 which grob to modify
3150 which property to modify
3152 which context the grob comes from.
3155 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3156 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3157 properties available for that grob.
3159 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3160 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3163 @node Font selection
3164 @subsection Font selection
3166 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3167 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3168 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3169 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3170 characterized by its font name.
3172 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3173 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3174 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3179 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3180 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3181 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3182 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3185 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3186 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3187 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3190 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3191 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3194 @item font-relative-size
3195 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3196 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3197 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3199 @item font-design-size
3200 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3202 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3203 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3204 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3205 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3208 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3209 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3216 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3217 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3218 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3219 any value for that qualifier.
3222 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3223 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3226 @cindex @code{font-style}
3228 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3229 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3230 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3231 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3232 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3235 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3236 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3239 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3240 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3241 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3242 which have special encodings.
3244 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3245 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3246 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3250 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3252 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3255 @cindex font selection
3256 @cindex font magnification
3257 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3261 @subsection Text markup
3265 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3266 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3267 in the following way.
3269 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3274 c^#'(italic "italic")
3275 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3277 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3278 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3282 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3283 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3286 text: string | (head? text+)
3287 head: markup | (markup+)
3288 markup-item: property | abbrev
3289 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3290 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3291 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3292 @code{large Large dynamic}
3295 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3296 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3297 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3298 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3300 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3303 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3305 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3309 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3310 and uses named lookup
3317 lookup by character name
3319 plain text lookup (by character value)
3325 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3327 select fingering number fontstyle
3329 select volta number fontstyle
3331 select time signature number fontstyle
3333 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3335 select mark number fontstyle
3337 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3339 select large roman fontstyle
3341 select Large roman fontstyle
3343 select dynamics fontstyle
3347 @cindex metronome mark
3349 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3353 #(define note '(columns
3354 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3355 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3356 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3357 #(define dotted-eight-note
3358 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3361 \notes\relative c'' {
3362 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3368 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3374 @node Invisible grobs
3375 @subsection Invisible grobs
3376 @cindex invisible grobs
3380 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3386 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3387 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3388 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3389 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3391 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3393 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3394 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3396 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3398 \property Voice.Stem \override
3399 #'transparent = ##t }
3402 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3403 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3406 \notes\relative c'' {
3408 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3412 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3413 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3417 \notes\relative c'' {
3420 as bes c bes c d \break
3421 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3424 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3428 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3429 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3431 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3432 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3433 \paper { \translator {
3435 \remove Stem_engraver
3441 @subsection Dirty tricks
3442 @cindex embedded tex
3444 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3445 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3446 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3447 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3450 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3451 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3454 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3455 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3456 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3457 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3462 \notes \relative c'' {
3463 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3464 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3465 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3469 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3476 @section Page layout
3479 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3480 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3481 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3495 @subsection Paper block
3498 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3499 music notation. The syntax is
3502 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3505 where each of the items is one of
3508 @item An assignment.
3510 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3511 more information on context definitions.
3513 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3515 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3518 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3519 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3521 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3523 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3524 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3528 @c . {Paper variables}
3529 @node Paper variables
3530 @subsection Paper variables
3531 @cindex Paper variables
3533 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3536 @cindex @code{indent}
3538 The indentation of the first line of music.
3539 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3541 @item @code{staffspace}
3542 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3545 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3546 @item @code{linewidth}
3547 Sets the width of the lines.
3549 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3550 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3551 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3552 produces a single line.
3554 @cindex @code{textheight}
3556 @item @code{textheight}
3557 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3560 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3562 @item @code{interscoreline}
3563 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3565 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3567 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3568 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3569 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3570 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3575 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3577 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3578 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3579 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3582 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3583 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3585 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3592 @subsection Font size
3595 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3596 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3597 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3598 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3600 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3601 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3602 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3603 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3604 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3605 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3607 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3608 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3614 @subsection Paper size
3619 @cindex @code{papersize}
3621 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3622 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3623 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3624 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3625 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3628 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3629 \include "paper16.ly"
3632 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3633 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3634 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3638 @subsection Line break
3641 @cindex breaking lines
3643 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3644 that it looks neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines have
3647 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3648 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3649 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3650 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3651 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3652 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3654 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
3657 < \repeat 7 unfold @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
3661 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
3665 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3667 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3668 the penalty command:
3673 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3678 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3679 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3683 @subsection Page break
3686 @cindex breaking pages
3688 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3689 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3690 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3691 the command @code{\newpage}
3692 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3698 @c why do so difficult?
3699 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3700 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3702 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3705 @c . {Output scaling}
3706 @node Output scaling
3707 @subsection Output scaling
3722 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3723 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3727 @c . {Output formats}
3728 @node Output formats
3729 @section Output formats
3731 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3735 * PostScript output::
3737 * ASCIIScript output::
3741 @subsection TeX output
3744 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3745 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3746 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3747 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3748 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3749 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3753 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3756 @node PostScript output
3757 @subsection PostScript output
3758 @cindex PostScript output
3759 @cindex direct PostScript output
3761 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3762 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3763 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3766 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3767 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3768 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3770 Interpreting music...[3]
3771 Preprocessing elements...
3772 Calculating column positions...
3773 paper output to foo.ps...
3775 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3781 Text font selection is broken.
3783 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3784 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3785 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3786 printer before printing.
3788 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3789 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3794 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3800 @subsection Scheme output
3801 @cindex Scheme output
3803 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3804 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3805 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3806 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3807 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3811 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3812 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3813 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3815 Interpreting music...[3]
3816 Preprocessing elements...
3817 Calculating column positions...
3818 paper output to foo.scm...
3821 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3822 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3826 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3830 @node ASCIIScript output
3831 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3832 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3833 @cindex ascii script
3836 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3837 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3838 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3839 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3840 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3843 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3844 file in your .ly, one of:
3846 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3847 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3850 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3851 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3852 symbol has been made invisible:
3855 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3856 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3857 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3859 Interpreting music...[3]
3860 Preprocessing elements...
3861 Calculating column positions... [2]
3862 paper output to as-email.as...
3864 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3866 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3867 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3868 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3869 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3879 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3880 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3881 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3883 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3885 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3886 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3887 dropped in future versions.
3894 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3895 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3896 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3897 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3899 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3900 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3901 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3902 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3903 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3904 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3906 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3907 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3908 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3909 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3910 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3912 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3917 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3918 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3922 * MIDI instrument names::
3927 @subsection MIDI block
3931 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3932 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3936 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3937 @item context definitions
3940 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3944 @cindex context definition
3946 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3947 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3948 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3951 @node MIDI instrument names
3952 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3954 @cindex instrument names
3955 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3956 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3958 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3959 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3960 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3961 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3965 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3966 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3976 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3979 @section Music entry
3987 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3988 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3989 find and correct mistakes.
3993 @subsection Relative
3995 @cindex relative octave specification
3997 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3998 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3999 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
4000 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
4002 @cindex @code{\relative}
4004 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
4007 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
4008 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
4009 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
4010 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
4011 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
4014 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
4015 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
4016 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
4017 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
4019 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
4020 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
4026 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
4027 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4029 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
4032 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
4033 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
4034 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
4037 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4044 @cindex @code{\notes}
4046 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
4047 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
4048 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
4051 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
4052 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
4053 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
4054 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
4059 @subsection Bar check
4063 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
4067 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
4068 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
4069 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
4070 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
4071 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
4073 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
4075 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
4080 @cindex skipTypesetting
4082 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4083 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4084 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4085 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4086 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4087 corrected music})). Bar
4090 @c . {Point and click}
4091 @node Point and click
4092 @subsection Point and click
4094 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4095 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4096 error in the sheet music.
4098 To use it, you need the following software
4100 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4104 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4105 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4107 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4108 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4109 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4113 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4114 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4117 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4119 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4120 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4121 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4124 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4127 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4132 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4135 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4137 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4138 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4139 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4141 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4142 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4146 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4148 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4149 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4150 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4151 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4152 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4153 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4154 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4155 init file, before invoking server-start.
4158 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4161 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4163 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4166 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4169 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4170 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4171 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4176 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4177 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4178 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4180 @node Skipping corrected music
4181 @section Skipping corrected music
4183 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4184 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4185 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4186 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4189 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4190 \relative c'' { c8 d
4191 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4193 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4198 @node Interpretation context
4199 @section Interpretation context
4202 * Creating contexts::
4203 * Default contexts::
4204 * Context properties::
4205 * Engravers and performers::
4206 * Changing context definitions::
4207 * Defining new contexts::
4211 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4212 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4213 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4214 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4217 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4218 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4222 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4223 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4224 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4228 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4229 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4230 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4231 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4233 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4234 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4235 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4236 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4237 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4240 @node Creating contexts
4241 @subsection Creating contexts
4243 @cindex @code{\context}
4244 @cindex context selection
4246 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4247 following music expression.
4250 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4253 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4254 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4255 context does not exist, it will be created.
4257 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4259 \notes \relative c'' {
4260 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4266 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4267 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4268 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4269 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4270 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4271 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4272 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4276 @node Default contexts
4277 @subsection Default contexts
4279 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4280 declaration: they inherit the
4281 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4282 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4283 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4285 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4286 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4289 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4292 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4293 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4296 \context Score @var{music}
4300 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4301 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4303 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4304 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4307 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4308 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4309 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4310 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4311 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4312 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4314 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4315 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4318 @cindex explicit context
4319 @cindex starting with chords
4320 @cindex chords, starting with
4322 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4323 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4326 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4327 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4329 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4330 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4335 @node Context properties
4336 @subsection Context properties
4338 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4339 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4340 @cindex @code{\property}
4342 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4345 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4346 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4347 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4349 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4350 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4351 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4352 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4354 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4356 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4359 @cindex properties, unsetting
4360 @cindex @code{\unset}
4362 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4363 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4364 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4369 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4370 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4372 @node Engravers and performers
4373 @subsection Engravers and performers
4377 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4378 special C++ classes.
4382 @c . {Context definitions}
4383 @node Changing context definitions
4384 @subsection Changing context definitions
4386 @cindex context definition
4387 @cindex translator definition
4389 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4390 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4391 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4395 @var{context-identifier}
4398 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4400 \remove @var{engravername}
4401 \consists @var{engravername}
4405 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4409 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4413 \translator { \StaffContext
4414 \remove Clef_engraver
4420 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4423 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4424 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4425 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4426 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4428 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4429 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4430 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4431 command will override any predefined settings.
4434 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4435 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4436 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4438 @node Defining new contexts
4439 @subsection Defining new contexts
4441 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4442 following extra information:
4444 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4446 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4453 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4456 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4457 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4458 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4462 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4463 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4464 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4465 for this engraver are the following:
4467 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4468 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4469 The standard cooperation engraver.
4471 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4473 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4474 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4475 and only the top level context.
4477 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4479 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4480 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4481 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4488 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4489 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4490 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4492 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4493 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4494 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4497 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4498 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4499 End-users generally don't need this command.
4501 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4502 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4503 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4504 context to create by default.
4506 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4507 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4510 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4511 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4512 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4516 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4517 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4518 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4519 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4524 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4531 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4539 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4546 @c . {Syntactic details}
4547 @node Syntactic details
4548 @section Syntactic details
4549 @cindex Syntactic details
4551 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4556 * Music expressions::
4557 * Manipulating music expressions::
4565 @subsection Top level
4568 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4572 @subsubsection Score
4575 @cindex score definition
4577 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4578 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4581 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4584 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4585 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4589 @c . {Default output}
4590 @subsubsection Default output
4592 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4593 entering such a block at the top level.
4596 @subsubsection Header
4598 @cindex @code{\header}
4601 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4602 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4603 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4604 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4605 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4607 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4611 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4612 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4615 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4617 @subsubsection Default output
4619 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4620 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4624 @subsection Identifiers
4628 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4629 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4635 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4636 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4637 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4638 specialized data types,
4645 @item Translator_def
4649 @item Music_output_def
4650 @item Moment (rational number)
4653 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4654 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4655 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4656 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4657 during a lilypond run.
4660 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4661 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4662 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4664 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4665 not yet user accessible.
4666 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4671 @node Music expressions
4672 @subsection Music expressions
4674 @cindex music expressions
4676 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4677 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4678 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4679 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4680 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4681 quarter note @code{d}:
4684 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4687 @cindex Sequential music
4688 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4689 @cindex sequential music
4692 @cindex Simultaneous music
4693 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4695 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4699 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4700 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4702 For both, there is a shorthand:
4704 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4708 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4710 for simultaneous music.
4711 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4712 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4713 are expressed in two different ways:
4715 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4716 \notes \context Voice {
4717 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4718 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4723 Other compound music expressions include
4726 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4727 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4728 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4729 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4733 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4734 @node Manipulating music expressions
4735 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4737 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4738 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4739 directly on it. The syntax is
4741 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4743 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4744 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4746 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4747 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4748 about how music is stored.
4750 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4751 #(define (testfunc x)
4752 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4753 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4755 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4756 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4761 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4765 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4766 generated documentation.
4769 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4770 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4773 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4775 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4776 #(define (reverse-music music)
4777 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4778 (reversed (reverse elements))
4779 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4780 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4782 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4783 (map reverse-music reversed)
4786 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4788 \score { \context Voice {
4790 \apply #reverse-music \music
4795 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4798 @c . {Span requests}
4804 @subsubsection Span requests
4805 @cindex Span requests
4807 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4808 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4812 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4816 @cindex @code{\start}
4817 @cindex @code{\stop}
4819 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4820 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4821 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4822 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4824 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4825 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4826 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4829 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4830 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4831 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4832 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4837 @subsection Assignments
4840 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4841 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4842 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4843 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4844 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4845 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4847 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4848 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4849 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4850 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4852 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4853 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4854 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4860 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4861 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4862 first item in a block.
4866 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4870 \paperIdent % correct
4875 @c . {Lexical modes}
4877 @subsection Lexical modes
4878 @cindex Lexical modes
4881 @cindex @code{\notes}
4882 @cindex @code{\chords}
4883 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4885 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4886 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4887 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4888 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4889 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4890 major triad respectively.
4892 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4894 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4895 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4896 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4899 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4900 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4901 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4902 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4904 Different input modes may be nested.
4908 @subsection Ambiguities
4913 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4917 @item The assignment
4922 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4923 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4924 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4925 containing the syllable `bar'.
4927 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4939 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4940 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4941 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4943 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4945 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4952 @c . {Lexical details}
4953 @node Lexical details
4954 @section Lexical details
4956 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4967 * Version information::
4972 @subsection Comments
4975 @cindex block comment
4976 @cindex line comment
4980 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4981 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4982 They cannot be nested.
4985 @subsection Direct Scheme
4989 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4992 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4993 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4994 wherever it is allowed,
4998 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
5000 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
5002 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
5003 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
5004 an integer (namely, 3).
5006 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
5009 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
5010 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
5011 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
5016 @subsection Keywords
5020 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
5021 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
5024 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
5025 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
5026 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
5027 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
5028 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
5029 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
5030 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
5031 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
5032 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
5037 @subsection Integers
5045 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
5046 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
5051 @cindex real numbers
5057 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
5058 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
5059 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
5060 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
5061 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
5069 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
5070 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
5071 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
5072 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
5080 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5081 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5082 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5083 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5084 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5088 @subsection Main input
5091 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5093 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5094 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5096 @node File inclusion
5097 @subsection File inclusion
5098 @cindex @code{\include}
5100 \include @var{filename}
5103 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5104 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5105 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5108 @node Version information
5109 @subsection Version information
5110 @cindex @code{\version}
5112 \version @var{string}
5115 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5116 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5117 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5118 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5119 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5127 @c broken with emacs-21
5128 @c {Local emac s vars}
5129 @c Local varia bles:
5131 @c minor-mod e: font-lock
5132 @c minor-mo de: outline
5133 @c outline -layout: (-1 : 0)
5134 @c outlin e-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5135 @c outli ne-primary-bullet: "{"
5136 @c outli ne-stylish-prefixes: nil
5137 @c outli ne-override-protect: t