1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
7 version that you are working on. See TRANSLATION for details.
13 Tutorial guidelines: (different from policy.txt!)
14 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
15 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
17 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
19 Don't use any other relative=X commands.
21 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "es". I know it's not
22 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
23 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
25 - Add "Music Glossary: @rglos{foo}" to the *top* of the relevant
26 portions of the tutorial.
34 This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
35 language and explains how to produce printed music. After this first
36 contact we will explain how to create beautiful printed music
37 containing common musical notation.
41 * Single staff notation::
42 * Multiple notes at once::
51 This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.
56 * Working on input files::
57 * How to read the manual::
61 @node Compiling a file
62 @subsection Compiling a file
66 @cindex example, first
67 @cindex case sensitive
69 @qq{Compiling} is the term used for processing an input file
70 in LilyPond format to produce a file which can be printed and
71 (optionally) a MIDI file which can be played. LilyPond input
72 files are simple text files. The first example
73 shows what a simple input file looks like.
75 To create sheet music, we write an input file that specifies the
76 notation. For example, if we write:
85 the result looks like this:
87 @c in this case we don't want verbatim
94 @warning{Notes and lyrics in LilyPond input must always be
95 surrounded by @strong{@{ curly braces @}}. The braces
96 should also be surrounded by a space unless they are at the
97 beginning or end of a line to avoid ambiguities. The braces may
98 be omitted in some examples in this manual, but don't forget them
99 in your own music! For more information about the display of
100 examples in the manual, see @ref{How to read the manual}.}
102 In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}.
103 @w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} is valid input; @w{@code{@{ C D E @}}} will
104 produce an error message.
108 @subheading Entering music and viewing output
111 @cindex viewing music
113 @cindex running LilyPond under MacOS X
114 @cindex MacOS X, running LilyPond
115 @cindex running LilyPond under Windows
116 @cindex Windows, running LilyPond
117 @cindex running LilyPond under Unix
118 @cindex Unix, running LilyPond
120 In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to
121 view or print the output.
123 Note that there are several other text editors available with
124 better support for LilyPond. For more information, see
125 @rprogram{Text editor support}.
127 @warning{The first time you ever run LilyPond, it may take a
128 minute or two because all of the system fonts have to be analyzed
129 first. After this, LilyPond will be much faster!}
131 @subsubheading MacOS X
133 If you double click @command{LilyPond.app}, it will open with an
134 example file. Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your
135 Desktop, and then process it with the menu command
136 @w{@code{Compile > Typeset File}}. The resulting PDF file will be
137 displayed on your screen.
139 For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting @q{New}
140 or @q{Open}. You must save your file before typesetting it. If
141 any errors occur in processing, please see the log window.
144 @subsubheading Windows
146 On Windows, if you double-click in the LilyPond icon on the
147 Desktop, it will open a simple text editor with an example file.
148 Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop and then
149 double-click on the file to process it (the file icon looks like a
150 note). After some seconds, you will get a file @file{test.pdf} on
151 your desktop. Double-click on this PDF file to view the typeset
152 score. An alternative method to process the @file{test.ly} file
153 is to drag and drop it onto the LilyPond icon using your mouse
156 To edit an existing @file{.ly} file, right-click on it and
157 select @qq{Edit source}. To get an empty file to start from, run
158 the editor as described above and use @qq{New} in
159 the @qq{File} menu, or right-click on the desktop and select
160 @qq{New..Text Document}, change its name to a name of your choice
161 and change the file extension to @code{.ly}. Double-click the
162 icon to type in your LilyPond source code as before.
164 Double-clicking the file does not only result in a PDF file, but
165 also produces a @file{.log} file that contains some information on
166 what LilyPond has done to the file. If any errors occur, please
171 Create a text file called @file{test.ly} and enter:
179 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows:
186 You will see something resembling:
190 GNU LilyPond @version{}
193 Interpreting music...
194 Preprocessing graphical objects...
195 Finding the ideal number of pages...
196 Fitting music on 1 page...
198 Layout output to `test.ps'...
199 Converting to `test.pdf'...
203 @node Simple notation
204 @subsection Simple notation
206 @cindex simple notation
207 @cindex notation, simple
209 LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically. In the
210 next example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond
211 has added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.
213 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
220 This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic
227 @cindex relative mode
228 @cindex quote, single
230 @cindex accidentals and relative mode
231 @cindex relative mode, and accidentals
238 Music Glossary: @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{interval},
239 @rglos{scale}, @rglos{middle C}, @rglos{octave},
242 The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.
243 In this mode, the octave is chosen automatically by assuming the
244 following note is always to be placed closest to the previous
245 note, i.e., it is to be placed in the octave which is within three
246 staff spaces of the previous note. We begin by entering the most
247 elementary piece of music, a @notation{scale}, in which every note
248 is within just one staff space of the previous note.
250 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
251 % set the starting point to middle C
258 The initial note is @notation{middle C}. Each successive note is
259 placed closest to the previous note -- in other words, the first
260 @code{c} is the closest C to middle C. This is followed by the
261 closest D to the previous note. We can create melodies which have
262 larger intervals, still using only @code{\relative} mode:
264 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
272 It is not necessary for the first note of the melody to start on
273 the note which specifies the starting pitch. In the previous
274 example, the first note -- the @code{d} -- is the closest D to
277 By adding (or removing) quotes @code{'} or commas @code{,} from
278 the @code{@w{\relative c' @{}} command, we can change the starting
281 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
282 % one octave above middle C
288 Relative mode can be confusing initially, but is the easiest way
289 to enter most melodies. Let us see how this relative calculation
290 works in practice. Starting from a B, which is on the middle line
291 in a treble clef, you can reach a C, D and E within 3 staff spaces
292 going up, and an A, G and F within 3 staff spaces going down. So
293 if the note following a B is a C, D or E it will be assumed to be
294 above the B, and an A, G or F will be assumed to be below.
296 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
298 b c % c is 1 staff space up, so is the c above
299 b d % d is 2 up or 5 down, so is the d above
300 b e % e is 3 up or 4 down, so is the e above
301 b a % a is 6 up or 1 down, so is the a below
302 b g % g is 5 up or 2 down, so is the g below
303 b f % f is 4 up or 3 down, so is the f below
307 Exactly the same happens even when any of these notes are
308 sharpened or flattened. @notation{Accidentals} are
309 @strong{totally ignored} in the calculation of relative position.
310 Precisely the same staff space counting is done from a note at any
311 other position on the staff.
313 To add intervals that are larger than three staff spaces, we can
314 raise the @notation{octave} by adding a single quote @code{'} (or
315 apostrophe) to the note name. We can lower the octave by adding a
316 comma @code{,} to the note name.
318 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
326 To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple
327 @code{''} or @code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single
328 quotes @code{''} and not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}! The
329 initial value in @code{@w{\relative c'}} may also be modified like
331 @c " - keeps quotes in order for context-sensitive editor -td
333 @subheading Durations (rhythms)
335 @cindex note durations
342 @cindex notating durations
344 Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}, @rglos{duration},
345 @rglos{whole note}, @rglos{half note}, @rglos{quarter note},
348 The @notation{duration} of a note is specified by a number after
349 the note name: @code{1} for a @notation{whole note}, @code{2} for
350 a @notation{half note}, @code{4} for a @notation{quarter note} and
351 so on. @notation{Beams} are added automatically.
353 If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
354 for the next note. The duration of the first note defaults to a
357 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
361 a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
365 To create @notation{dotted notes}, add a dot @code{.} to the
366 duration number. The duration of a dotted note must be stated
367 explicitly (i.e., with a number).
369 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
380 @cindex notating rests
382 Music Glossary: @rglos{rest}.
384 A @notation{rest} is entered just like a note with the name
387 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
395 @subheading Time signature
397 @cindex time signature
402 Music Glossary: @rglos{time signature}.
404 The @notation{time signature} can be set with the @code{\time}
407 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
430 Music Glossary: @rglos{clef}.
432 The @notation{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:
434 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
448 @subheading All together
450 Here is a small example showing all these elements together:
452 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
463 Notation Reference: @ruser{Writing pitches},
464 @ruser{Writing rhythms}, @ruser{Writing rests},
465 @ruser{Time signature}, @ruser{Clef}.
468 @node Working on input files
469 @subsection Working on input files
472 @cindex braces, curly
475 @cindex comment, line
476 @cindex block comment
477 @cindex comment, line
478 @cindex case sensitive
479 @cindex whitespace insensitive
484 @funindex %@{ ... %@}
486 LilyPond input files are similar to source files in many common
487 programming languages. They are case sensitive, and white-space
488 is generally ignored. Expressions are formed with curly braces
489 @{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or
490 @w{@code{%@{ ... %@}}}.
492 If the previous sentences sound like nonsense, don't worry! We'll
493 explain what all these terms mean:
498 @strong{Case sensitive}:
499 it matters whether you enter a letter in lower case (e.g.
500 @w{@code{a, b, s, t}}) or upper case (e.g. @w{@code{A, B, S, T}}).
501 Notes are lower case: @w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} is valid input;
502 @w{@code{@{ C D E @}}} will produce an error message.
505 @strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
506 it does not matter how many spaces (or tabs or new lines) you add.
507 @w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} means the same thing as
508 @w{@code{@{ c @tie{}} @tie{} @tie{} d e @}} and:
516 Of course, the previous example is hard to read. A good rule of
517 thumb is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:
525 However, whitespace @emph{is} required to separate many syntactical
526 elements from others. In other words, whitespace can always be
527 @emph{added}, but it cannot be @emph{eliminated}. As missing
528 whitespace can give rise to strange errors it is advisable to
529 always insert whitespace before and after every syntactic element,
530 for example, before and after every curly brace.
533 @strong{Expressions}:
534 every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
535 braces @}} placed around the input. These braces tell LilyPond
536 that the input is a single music expression, just like parentheses
537 @code{()} in mathematics. The braces should be surrounded by a
538 space unless they are at the beginning or end of a line to avoid
541 A LilyPond command followed by a simple expression in braces (such
542 as @w{@code{\relative @{ @}}}) also counts as a single music
547 @cindex block comment
550 a comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it
551 is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed
552 output. There are two types of comments. The percent symbol
553 @code{%} introduces a line comment; anything after @code{%} on
554 that line is ignored. By convention, a line comment is placed
555 @emph{above} the code it refers to.
559 % this comment refers to the Bs
563 A block comment marks a whole section of music input as a comment.
564 Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}} is ignored.
565 However, block comments do not @q{nest}. This means that you
566 cannot place a block comment inside another block comment. If you
567 try, the first @code{%@}} will terminate @emph{both} block
568 comments. The following fragment shows possible uses for
572 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
576 This line, and the notes below are ignored,
577 since they are in a block comment.
586 @node How to read the manual
587 @subsection How to read the manual
589 @cindex how to read the manual
590 @cindex manual, reading
591 @cindex reading the manual
592 @cindex examples, clickable
593 @cindex clickable examples
594 @cindex tips for constructing files
596 @cindex constructing files, tips
597 @cindex files, tips for constructing
599 LilyPond input must be surrounded by @{ @} marks or a
600 @code{@w{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}}, as we saw in @ref{Working on
601 input files}. For the rest of this manual, most examples will
602 omit this. To replicate the examples, you may copy and paste the
603 displayed input, but you @strong{must} add the
604 @code{@w{\relative c'' @{ @}}} like this:
608 ... example goes here...
612 Why omit the braces? Most examples in this manual can be inserted
613 into the middle of a longer piece of music. For these examples,
614 it does not make sense to add @code{@w{\relative c'' @{ @}}} --
615 you should not place a @code{\relative} inside another
616 @code{\relative}! If we included @code{@w{\relative c'' @{ @}}}
617 around every example, you would not be able to copy a small
618 documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece of your
619 own. Most people want to add material to an existing piece, so we
620 format the manual this way.
623 @subheading Clickable examples
625 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
626 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
627 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
628 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image. Try it on
634 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
638 By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section,
639 you have a starting template for experiments. To see exactly the
640 same output (line-width and all), copy everything from @qq{Start
641 cut-&-pastable section} to the bottom of the file.
645 There are more tips for constructing input files in
646 @ref{Suggestions for writing LilyPond input files}. But it might be
647 best to read through the rest of the tutorial first.
650 @node Single staff notation
651 @section Single staff notation
653 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
657 * Accidentals and key signatures::
659 * Articulation and dynamics::
661 * Automatic and manual beams::
662 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
666 @node Accidentals and key signatures
667 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
669 @subheading Accidentals
672 @cindex accidentals and key signatures
675 @cindex sharp, double
685 Music Glossary: @rglos{sharp}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{double sharp},
686 @rglos{double flat}, @rglos{accidental}.
688 A @notation{sharp} pitch is made by adding @code{is} to the name,
689 and a @notation{flat} pitch by adding @code{es}. As you might
690 expect, a @notation{double sharp} or @notation{double flat} is
691 made by adding @code{isis} or @code{eses}. This syntax is derived
692 from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
693 like German and Dutch. To use other names for
694 @notation{accidentals}, see @ruser{Note names in other languages}.
696 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
697 cis1 ees fisis, aeses
700 @cindex key signature, setting
701 @subheading Key signatures
703 @cindex key signature
706 @cindex accidentals and key signature
707 @cindex content vs. layout
708 @cindex layout vs. content
717 Music Glossary: @rglos{key signature}, @rglos{major},
720 The @notation{key signature} is set with the command @code{\key}
721 followed by a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
723 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
732 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
734 Music Glossary: @rglos{accidental}, @rglos{key signature},
735 @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{natural}, @rglos{sharp},
736 @rglos{transposition}.
738 To determine whether to print an @notation{accidental}, LilyPond
739 examines the pitches and the @notation{key signature}. The key
740 signature only affects the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the
741 note's @notation{pitch}! This is a feature that often causes
742 confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.
744 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
745 layout. The alteration (@notation{flat}, @notation{natural sign} or
746 @notation{sharp}) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore
747 musical content. Whether an accidental (a @emph{printed} flat,
748 natural or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding
749 note is a question of layout. Layout is something that follows
750 rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to those
751 rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
752 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to
757 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
763 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add
764 @code{is} and type @code{cis} and @code{fis} in the input file.
766 The code @code{b} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just on
767 the middle line of the staff.} Rather, it means @qq{there is a
768 note with pitch B-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
769 @emph{does} get an accidental:
771 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
776 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
777 effort when typing, but the advantage is that
778 @notation{transposing} is easier, and accidentals can be printed
779 according to different conventions. For some examples how
780 accidentals can be printed according to different rules, see
781 @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
785 Notation Reference: @ruser{Note names in other languages},
786 @ruser{Accidentals}, @ruser{Automatic accidentals},
787 @ruser{Key signature}.
789 Music Glossary: @rglos{Pitch names}.
793 @subsection Ties and slurs
797 @cindex slur, phrasing
798 @cindex phrasing slur
807 Music Glossary: @rglos{tie}.
809 A @notation{tie} is created by appending a tilde @code{~} to the
810 first note being tied.
812 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
820 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}.
822 A @notation{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The
823 starting note and ending note are marked with @code{(} and
824 @code{)} respectively.
826 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
827 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
830 @subheading Phrasing slurs
832 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}, @rglos{phrasing}.
834 Slurs to indicate longer @notation{phrasing} can be entered with
835 @code{\(} and @code{\)}. You can have both @notation{slurs}
836 and phrasing slurs at the same time, but you cannot have
837 simultaneous slurs or simultaneous phrasing slurs.
839 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
840 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
845 @cindex slurs versus ties
846 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
848 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}, @rglos{slur}, @rglos{tie}.
850 A @notation{slur} looks like a @notation{tie}, but it has a
851 different meaning. A tie simply makes the first note longer, and
852 can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs
853 indicate the @notation{articulation} of notes, and can be used on
854 larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties can be nested.
856 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
857 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
862 Notation Reference: @ruser{Ties}, @ruser{Slurs},
863 @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
866 @node Articulation and dynamics
867 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
870 @subheading Articulations
876 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}.
878 Common @notation{articulations} can be added to a note using a
879 dash @code{-} and a single character:
881 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
882 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
885 @subheading Fingerings
892 Music Glossary: @rglos{fingering}.
894 Similarly, @notation{fingering} indications can be added to a note
895 using a dash (@code{-}) and the digit to be printed:
897 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
901 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
902 you can specify a direction by replacing the dash (@code{-}) with
903 @code{^} (up) or @code{_} (down). You can also use multiple
904 articulations on the same note. However, in most cases it is best
905 to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
907 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
908 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
930 Music Glossary: @rglos{dynamics}, @rglos{crescendo},
933 @notation{Dynamic} signs are made by adding the markings (with a
934 backslash) to the note:
936 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
941 @notation{Crescendi} and @notation{decrescendi} are started with
942 the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}. The next dynamics sign, for
943 example @code{\f}, will end the (de)crescendo, or the command
944 @code{\!} can be used:
946 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
952 Notation Reference: @ruser{Articulations and ornamentations},
953 @ruser{Fingering instructions}, @ruser{Dynamics}.
957 @subsection Adding text
966 Text may be added to your scores:
968 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
972 Extra formatting may be added with the @code{\markup} command:
974 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
975 c1^\markup{ \bold espr}
977 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
983 Notation Reference: @ruser{Writing text}.
986 @node Automatic and manual beams
987 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
990 @cindex automatic beams
992 @cindex beams, automatic
993 @cindex beams, manual
994 @cindex beams, by hand
999 @funindex \autoBeamOff
1000 @funindex autoBeamOff
1001 @funindex \autoBeamOn
1002 @funindex autoBeamOn
1004 Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}.
1006 All @notation{beams} are drawn automatically:
1008 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1009 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
1012 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
1013 manually. To correct just an occasional beam mark the first note
1014 to be beamed with @code{[} and the last one with @code{]}.
1016 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1017 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
1020 If you want to turn off automatic beaming entirely or for an
1021 extended section of music, use the command @code{\autoBeamOff}
1022 to turn off automatic beaming and @code{\autoBeamOn} to turn it
1025 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1034 Notation Reference: @ruser{Automatic beams}, @ruser{Manual beams}.
1037 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
1038 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
1040 @subheading Partial measure
1044 @cindex partial measure
1049 Music Glossary: @rglos{anacrusis}.
1051 A pickup (or @notation{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
1052 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
1053 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
1055 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1068 Music Glossary: @rglos{note value}, @rglos{triplet}.
1070 @notation{Tuplets} are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It
1071 takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The
1072 duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction.
1073 Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a
1074 @notation{triplet} has 2/3 as its fraction
1076 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1077 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
1078 \times 2/3 { c r c }
1079 \times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
1080 \times 2/3 { d4 a8 }
1083 @subheading Grace notes
1086 @cindex acciaccatura
1087 @cindex appoggiatura
1091 @funindex \acciaccatura
1092 @funindex acciaccatura
1093 @funindex \appoggiatura
1094 @funindex acciaccatura
1096 Music Glossary: @rglos{grace notes}, @rglos{acciaccatura},
1097 @rglos{appoggiatura}.
1099 @notation{Grace notes} are created with the @code{\grace} command,
1100 although they can also be created by prefixing a music expression
1101 with the keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}:
1103 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1104 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
1105 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
1106 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
1111 Notation Reference: @ruser{Grace notes}, @ruser{Tuplets},
1115 @node Multiple notes at once
1116 @section Multiple notes at once
1118 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
1119 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
1120 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
1122 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
1123 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
1124 than one voice on the same staff.
1127 * Music expressions explained::
1130 * Combining notes into chords::
1131 * Single staff polyphony::
1135 @node Music expressions explained
1136 @subsection Music expressions explained
1138 @cindex music expression
1139 @cindex expression, music
1140 @cindex compound music expression
1141 @cindex music expression, compound
1143 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
1144 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
1146 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1150 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
1151 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
1154 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1158 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
1159 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
1160 one). The result is another music expression:
1162 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1166 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
1168 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
1169 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
1170 expressions, and they can contain other expressions, so you can
1171 make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
1180 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
1183 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
1184 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
1185 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
1186 operators (like @code{+}, @code{*} and @code{/}) and parentheses.
1187 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
1188 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
1192 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
1194 @cindex multiple staves
1195 @cindex staves, multiple
1197 @cindex combining expressions in parallel
1198 @cindex parallel expressions
1199 @cindex expressions, parallel
1200 @cindex relative notes and simultaneous music
1201 @cindex relative notes and parallel expressions
1202 @cindex simultaneous music and relative notes
1203 @cindex parallel expressions and relative notes
1209 Music Glossary: @rglos{polyphony}.
1211 This technique is useful for @notation{polyphonic} music. To
1212 enter music with more voices or more staves, we combine
1213 expressions in parallel. To indicate that two voices should play
1214 at the same time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
1215 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
1216 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
1217 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
1218 notes) are combined simultaneously:
1220 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1230 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
1231 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
1232 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
1233 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
1235 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
1236 the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
1237 @code{@bs{}relative} command.}
1240 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
1242 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
1243 the beginning of the first expression. If there is a single note,
1244 there is one staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there
1245 is more than one staff. The following example shows a complex
1246 expression, but as it begins with a single note it will be set
1247 out on a single staff.
1249 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1252 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
1256 @node Multiple staves
1257 @subsection Multiple staves
1259 @cindex multiple staves
1260 @cindex staves, multiple
1262 @cindex context, notation
1263 @cindex notation context
1265 @funindex \new Staff
1273 @funindex ChordNames
1275 LilyPond input files are constructed out of music expressions, as
1276 we saw in @ref{Music expressions explained}. If the score begins
1277 with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates multiples
1278 staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we create
1279 each staff explicitly.
1281 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
1282 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
1283 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
1286 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1289 \new Staff { \clef treble c }
1290 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
1295 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
1296 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
1297 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
1298 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
1299 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
1301 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
1302 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
1303 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
1305 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
1306 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
1307 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
1308 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
1310 Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other staves by
1311 default. On the other hand, the key signature of one staff does
1312 @emph{not} affect other staves. This different default behavior
1313 is because scores with transposing instruments are more common
1314 than polyrhythmic scores.
1316 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1319 \new Staff { \clef treble \key d \major \time 3/4 c }
1320 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
1329 @subsection Staff groups
1332 @cindex staff, piano
1334 @cindex staff, choir
1336 @cindex staff, grand
1339 @funindex PianoStaff
1340 @funindex GrandStaff
1341 @funindex ChoirStaff
1343 Music Glossary: @rglos{brace}.
1345 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a
1347 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
1348 @ref{Multiple staves}. However, now this entire expression is
1349 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
1358 Here is a small example:
1360 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1363 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
1364 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1369 Other staff groupings are introduced with @code{\new GrandStaff},
1370 suitable for orchestral scores, and @w{@code{\new ChoirStaff}},
1371 suitable for vocal scores. These staff groups each form another
1372 type of context, one that generates the brace at the left end of
1373 every system and also controls the extent of bar lines.
1377 Notation Reference: @ruser{Keyboard and other multi-staff
1379 @ruser{Displaying staves}.
1382 @node Combining notes into chords
1383 @subsection Combining notes into chords
1386 @cindex note durations in chords
1392 Music Glossary: @rglos{chord}.
1394 We saw earlier how notes can be combined into @notation{chords} by
1395 indicating they are simultaneous by enclosing them in double angle
1396 brackets. However, the normal way of indicating a chord is to
1397 surround the pitches with @emph{single} angle brackets. Note that
1398 all the notes in a chord must have the same duration, and that the
1399 duration is placed after the closing bracket.
1401 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1402 r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
1405 Think of chords as almost equivalent to single notes:
1406 almost everything you can attach to a single note can be attached
1407 to a chord, and everything must go @emph{outside} the angle
1408 brackets. For example, you can combine markings like beams and
1409 ties with chords. They must be placed outside the angle brackets.
1411 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1412 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
1413 r4 <c e g>8( <c e g>\> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
1417 @node Single staff polyphony
1418 @subsection Single staff polyphony
1421 @cindex multiple voices
1422 @cindex voices, more on one staff
1423 @cindex single staff polyphony
1425 @cindex rest, spacer
1427 @funindex << ... \\ ... >>
1432 Polyphonic music in lilypond, while not difficult, uses concepts
1433 that we haven't discussed yet, so we're not going to introduce
1434 them here. Instead, the following sections introduce these concepts
1435 and explain them thoroughly.
1438 Learning Manual: @ref{Voices contain music}.
1440 Notation Reference: @ruser{Simultaneous notes}.
1445 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
1448 * Setting simple songs::
1449 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
1450 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
1454 @node Setting simple songs
1455 @subsection Setting simple songs
1460 @funindex \addlyrics
1463 Music Glossary: @rglos{lyrics}.
1465 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
1466 rhyme, @notation{Girls and boys come out to play}:
1468 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1472 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1476 The @notation{lyrics} can be set to these notes, combining both
1477 with the @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by
1478 separating each syllable with a space.
1480 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1485 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1488 Girls and boys come out to play,
1493 Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics,
1494 and the double angle brackets @w{@code{<< ... >>}} around the
1495 whole piece to show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the
1498 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
1499 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
1502 @cindex extender line
1505 @cindex lyrics, aligning
1506 @cindex aligning lyrics
1507 @cindex lyrics, multi-syllable words
1508 @cindex words with multiple syllables in lyrics
1510 Music Glossary: @rglos{melisma}, @rglos{extender line}.
1512 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @notation{The moon doth
1513 shine as bright as day}. Let's extend it:
1515 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1520 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1521 g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
1524 Girls and boys come out to play,
1525 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1530 We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes. The
1531 word @notation{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one. This
1532 is called a @notation{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more
1533 than one note. There are several ways to spread a syllable over
1534 multiple notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them, for
1535 details, see @ref{Ties and slurs}:
1537 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1542 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1543 g8 a4 b8 c( b) a d4 b8 g4.
1546 Girls and boys come out to play,
1547 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1552 The words now line up correctly with the notes, but the automatic
1553 beaming for the notes above @notation{shine as} does not look right.
1554 We can correct this by inserting manual beaming commands to override
1555 the automatic beaming here, for details, see @ref{Automatic and
1558 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1563 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1564 g8 a4 b8 c([ b]) a d4 b8 g4.
1567 Girls and boys come out to play,
1568 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1573 As an alternative to using slurs, the melismata may be indicated
1574 in just the lyrics by using an underscore @code{_} for each note
1575 that should be included in the melisma:
1577 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1582 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1583 g8 a4 b8 c[ b] a d4 b8 g4.
1586 Girls and boys come out to play,
1587 The moon doth shine _ as bright as day;
1592 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1593 note an @notation{extender line} is usually drawn from the
1594 syllable extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is
1595 entered as two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the
1596 first three bars of @notation{Dido's Lament}, from Purcell's
1597 @notation{Dido and Æneas}:
1599 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1605 b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
1609 am laid __ in earth,
1614 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1615 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1616 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1617 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1618 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1619 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1621 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1622 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1623 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1629 d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
1633 A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
1634 no __ crib for a bed, __
1639 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1640 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1641 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1642 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in quotes.
1643 Here's an example from Rossini's @notation{Figaro}, where
1644 @notation{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @notation{go} of
1645 @notation{Largo} in Figaro's aria @notation{Largo al factotum}:
1647 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1648 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1649 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1655 c4.~ c8 d b c([ d]) b c d b c
1658 Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tÃ
1665 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1668 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1669 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1671 @cindex lyrics and multiple staves
1672 @cindex multiple staves and lyrics
1674 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1675 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1676 example from Handel's @notation{Judas Maccabæus}:
1678 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1684 c8 c([ bes]) a a([ g]) f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
1687 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
1693 r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g]) f f([ e]) d e([ d]) c bes'4
1696 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
1701 Scores any more complex than this simple example are better
1702 produced by separating out the score structure from the notes and
1703 lyrics with variables. These are discussed in @ref{Organizing
1704 pieces with variables}.
1708 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1712 @section Final touches
1714 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1715 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1716 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1719 * Organizing pieces with variables::
1722 * Absolute note names::
1723 * After the tutorial::
1727 @node Organizing pieces with variables
1728 @subsection Organizing pieces with variables
1731 @cindex variables, defining
1734 @cindex assigning variables
1735 @cindex using variables
1736 @cindex variables, using
1737 @cindex variables, characters allowed in
1738 @cindex characters allowed in variables
1740 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1741 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1742 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1743 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1746 With variables (also known as identifiers or macros), we can break
1747 up complex music expressions. A variable is assigned as
1751 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1754 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1755 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1756 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1758 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1759 violin = \new Staff {
1764 cello = \new Staff {
1779 The name of a variable must have alphabetic characters only, no
1780 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1782 Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1783 expression, but may be used as many times as required anywhere after
1784 they have been defined. They may even be used in a later definition
1785 of another variable, giving a way of shortening the input if a
1786 section of music is repeated many times.
1788 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1789 tripletA = \times 2/3 { c,8 e g }
1790 barA = { \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA }
1797 Variables may be used for many other types of objects in
1798 the input. For example,
1803 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1806 Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
1807 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1820 @node Version number
1821 @subsection Version number
1825 @cindex version number
1827 @cindex future upgrades
1828 @cindex updating files
1829 @cindex files, updating
1833 @funindex convert-ly
1835 The @code{\version} statement records the version of LilyPond that
1836 was used to write the file:
1839 \version @w{"@version{}"}
1843 By convention, this is placed at the top of your LilyPond file.
1845 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
1846 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special
1847 program, @command{convert-ly}, and it uses @code{\version} to
1848 determine what rules to apply. For details, see
1849 @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}.
1853 @subsection Adding titles
1857 @cindex header block
1862 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1863 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1864 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1865 underneath the version number.
1868 \version @w{"@version{}"}
1876 @dots{} music @dots{}
1880 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1881 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1882 @ruser{Creating titles}.
1885 @node Absolute note names
1886 @subsection Absolute note names
1889 @cindex note names, absolute
1890 @cindex absolute mode
1891 @cindex absolute values for pitches
1892 @cindex pitches, absolute values
1893 @cindex absolute note names
1895 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1896 This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
1897 defining pitches exists: absolute mode.
1899 If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
1900 absolute values. A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
1901 @code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
1902 @code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
1905 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1913 Here is a four-octave scale:
1915 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1930 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1931 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1933 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1937 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
1938 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
1942 All these quotes makes the input less readable and they are a source
1943 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1944 easier to read and type:
1946 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1950 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
1955 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1956 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1957 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1958 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1961 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1962 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1967 @node After the tutorial
1968 @subsection After the tutorial
1970 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1971 piece or two. Start by adding notes to one of the
1972 @ref{Templates}. If you need any notation that was not covered in
1973 the tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1974 @ruser{Musical notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1975 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1976 @ref{Extending the templates}.
1978 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1979 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1980 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1981 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1982 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1983 you have more experience.
1985 In this tutorial and in the rest of the Learning Manual, there is a
1986 paragraph @strong{See also} at the end of each section, which contains
1987 cross-references to other sections: you should not follow these
1988 cross-references at first reading; when you have read all of the
1989 Learning Manual, you may want to read some sections again and follow
1990 cross-references for further reading.
1992 If you have not done so already, @emph{please} read @ref{About the
1993 documentation}. There is a lot of information about LilyPond, so
1994 newcomers often do not know where they should look for help. If
1995 you spend five minutes reading that section carefully, you might
1996 save yourself hours of frustration looking in the wrong places!