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13 @node Fundamental concepts
14 @chapter Fundamental concepts
16 You've seen in the Tutorial how to produce beautifully printed
17 music from a simple text file. This section introduces the
18 concepts and techniques required to produce equally beautiful
19 but more complex scores.
22 * How LilyPond input files work::
23 * Voices contain music::
24 * Contexts and engravers::
25 * Extending the templates::
29 @node How LilyPond input files work
30 @section How LilyPond input files work
32 The LilyPond input format is quite free-form, giving experienced
33 users a lot of flexibility to structure their files however they
34 wish. But this flexibility can make things confusing for new
35 users. This section will explain some of this structure, but may
36 gloss over some details in favor of simplicity. For a complete
37 description of the input format, see @ruser{File structure}.
40 * Introduction to the LilyPond file structure::
41 * Score is a (single) compound musical expression::
42 * Nesting music expressions::
43 * On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties::
46 @node Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
47 @subsection Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
50 @cindex file structure
52 A basic example of a LilyPond input file is
55 \version @w{"@version{}"}
60 @var{ @dots{} compound music expression @dots{} } % all the music goes here!
67 There are many variations of this basic pattern, but this
68 example serves as a useful starting place.
77 Up to this point none of the examples you have seen have used a
78 @code{\score@{@}} command. This is because LilyPond automatically
79 adds the extra commands which are needed when you give it simple
80 input. LilyPond treats input like this:
89 as shorthand for this:
106 In other words, if the input contains a single music expression,
107 LilyPond will interpret the file as though the music expression
108 was wrapped up inside the commands shown above.
110 @cindex implicit contexts
111 @cindex contexts, implicit
113 @strong{A word of warning!} Many of the examples in the LilyPond
114 documentation will omit the @code{\new Staff} and @code{\new Voice}
115 commands, leaving them to be created implicitly. For simple
116 examples this works well, but for more complex examples, especially
117 when additional commands are used, the implicit creation of contexts
118 can give surprising results, maybe creating extra unwanted staves.
119 The way to create contexts explicitly is explained in
120 @ref{Contexts and engravers}.
122 @warning{When entering more than a few lines of music it is
123 advisable to always create staves and voices explicitly.}
125 For now, though, let us return to the first example and examine the
126 @code{\score} command, leaving the others to default.
128 A @code{\score} block must always contain exactly one music
129 expression. Remember that a music expression could be anything
130 from a single note to a huge compound expression like
135 @var{ @dots{} insert the whole score of a Wagner opera in here @dots{} }
141 Since everything is inside @code{@{ @dots{} @}}, it counts
142 as one music expression.
144 As we saw previously, the @code{\score} block can contain other
167 Note that these three commands -- @code{\header}, @code{\layout} and
168 @code{\midi} -- are special: unlike many other commands which begin
169 with a backward slash (@code{\}) they are @emph{not} music expressions
170 and are not part of any music expression. So they may be placed
171 inside a @code{\score} block or outside it. In fact, these commands
172 are commonly placed outside the @code{\score} block -- for example,
173 @code{\header} is often placed above the @code{\score} command, as the
174 example at the beginning of this section shows.
176 Two more commands you have not previously seen are
177 @code{\layout @{ @}} and @code{\midi @{@}}. If these appear as
178 shown they will cause LilyPond to produce a printed output and a
179 MIDI output respectively. They are described fully in the
180 Notation Reference -- @ruser{Score layout}, and
181 @ruser{Creating MIDI output}.
183 @cindex scores, multiple
184 @cindex book block, implicit
185 @cindex implicit book block
189 You may code multiple @code{\score} blocks. Each will be
190 treated as a separate score, but they will be all combined into
191 a single output file. A @code{\book} command is not necessary
192 -- one will be implicitly created. However, if you would like
193 separate output files from one @file{.ly} file then the
194 @code{\book} command should be used to separate the different
195 sections: each @code{\book} block will produce a
196 separate output file.
200 Every @code{\book} block creates a separate output file (e.g., a
201 PDF file). If you haven't explicitly added one, LilyPond wraps
202 your entire input code in a @code{\book} block implicitly.
204 Every @code{\score} block is a separate chunk of music within a
207 @cindex layout block, effect of location
209 Every @code{\layout} block affects the @code{\score} or
210 @code{\book} block in which it appears -- i.e., a @code{\layout}
211 block inside a @code{\score} block affects only that @code{\score}
212 block, but a @code{\layout} block outside of a @code{\score} block
213 (and thus in a @code{\book} block, either explicitly or
214 implicitly) will affect every @code{\score} in that @code{\book}.
216 For details see @ruser{Multiple scores in a book}.
220 Another great shorthand is the ability to define variables, as
221 shown in @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}. All the
225 melody = \relative @{
234 When LilyPond looks at this file, it takes the value of
235 @code{melody} (everything after the equals sign) and inserts it
236 whenever it sees @code{\melody}. There's nothing special about
237 the name -- it could be @code{melody}, @code{global},
238 @code{keyTime}, @code{pianorighthand}, or something else.
239 Remember that you can use almost any name you like as long as it
240 contains just alphabetic characters and is distinct from LilyPond
241 command names. For more details, see @ref{Saving typing with
242 variables and functions}. The exact limitations on variable names
243 are detailed in @ruser{File structure}.
247 For a complete definition of the input format, see
248 @ruser{File structure}.
251 @node Score is a (single) compound musical expression
252 @subsection Score is a (single) compound musical expression
257 @cindex contents of a score block
258 @cindex score block, contents of
259 @cindex compound music expression
260 @cindex music expression, compound
262 We saw the general organization of LilyPond input files in the
263 previous section, @ref{Introduction to the LilyPond file structure}.
264 But we seemed to skip over the most important part: how do we figure
265 out what to write after @code{\score}?
267 We didn't skip over it at all. The big mystery is simply that
268 there @emph{is} no mystery. This line explains it all:
271 @emph{A @code{\score} block must contain exactly one music expression.}
275 To understand what is meant by a
276 music expression, you may find it useful to review the tutorial,
277 @ref{Music expressions explained}. In that section, we saw how to
278 build big music expressions from small pieces -- we started from
279 notes, then chords, etc. Now we're going to start from a big
280 music expression and work our way down. For simplicity, we'll use
281 just a singer and piano in our example. We don't need a
282 @code{StaffGroup} for this ensemble, which simply groups a number
283 of staves together with a bracket at the left, but we do need
284 staves for a singer and a piano, though.
289 \new Staff = "singer" <<
291 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
298 Here we have given names to the staves -- @qq{singer} and
299 @qq{piano}. This is not essential here, but it is a useful habit
300 to cultivate so that you can see at a glance what each stave is
303 Remember that we use @code{<< @dots{} >>} instead of @code{@{ @dots{} @}} to
304 show simultaneous music. This causes the vocal part and piano part
305 to appear one above the other in the score. The @code{<< @dots{} >>}
306 construct would not be necessary for the Singer staff in the example
307 above if it were going to contain only one sequential music
308 expression, but @code{<< @dots{} >>} rather than braces is necessary if
309 the music in the Staff is to contain two or more simultaneous
310 expressions, e.g. two simultaneous Voices, or a Voice with lyrics.
311 We're going to have a voice with lyrics, so angle brackets are
312 required. We'll add some real music later; for now let's just put
313 in some dummy notes and lyrics. If you've forgotten how to add lyrics
314 you may wish to review @code{\addlyrics} in @ref{Setting simple songs}.
316 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
319 \new Staff = "singer" <<
320 \new Voice = "vocal" { c'1 }
323 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
324 \new Staff = "upper" { c'1 }
325 \new Staff = "lower" { c'1 }
332 Now we have a lot more details. We have the singer's staff: it
333 contains a @code{Voice} (in LilyPond, this term refers to a set of
334 notes, not necessarily vocal notes -- for example, a violin
335 generally plays one voice) and some lyrics. We also have a piano
336 staff: it contains an upper staff (right hand) and a lower staff
337 (left hand), although the lower staff has yet to be given a bass
340 At this stage, we could start filling in notes. Inside the curly
341 braces next to @code{\new Voice = "vocal"}, we could start writing
345 r4 d''8\noBeam g, c4 r
349 But if we did that, the @code{\score} section would get pretty
350 long, and it would be harder to understand what was happening. So
351 let's use variables instead. These were introduced at the end
352 of the previous section, remember? To ensure the contents of the
353 @code{text} variable are interpreted as lyrics we preface them with
354 @code{\lyricmode}. Like @code{\addlyrics}, this switches the input
355 mode to lyrics. Without that, LilyPond would try to interpret the
356 contents as notes, which would generate errors. (Several other
357 input modes are available, see @ruser{Input modes}.)
359 So, adding a few notes and a bass clef for the left hand, we now
360 have a piece of real music:
362 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
363 melody = \relative { r4 d''8\noBeam g, c4 r }
364 text = \lyricmode { And God said, }
365 upper = \relative { <g' d g,>2~ <g d g,> }
366 lower = \relative { b,2 e }
370 \new Staff = "singer" <<
371 \new Voice = "vocal" { \melody }
374 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
375 \new Staff = "upper" { \upper }
376 \new Staff = "lower" {
386 When writing (or reading) a @code{\score} section, just take it
387 slowly and carefully. Start with the outer level, then work on
388 each smaller level. It also really helps to be strict with
389 indentation -- make sure that each item on the same level starts
390 on the same horizontal position in your text editor.
394 Notation Reference: @ruser{Structure of a score}.
397 @node Nesting music expressions
398 @subsection Nesting music expressions
400 @cindex staves, temporary
401 @cindex temporary staves
404 It is not essential to declare all staves at the beginning; they may
405 be introduced temporarily at any point. This is particularly useful
406 for creating ossia sections -- see @rglos{ossia}. Here is a simple
407 example showing how to introduce a new staff temporarily for the
408 duration of three notes:
410 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
427 Note that the size of the clef is the same as a clef printed
428 following a clef change -- slightly smaller than the clef
429 at the beginning of the line. This is usual for clefs printed
430 in the middle of a line.
432 @cindex staff, positioning
434 The ossia section may be placed above the staff
437 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
438 \new Staff = "main" {
445 alignAboveContext = #"main"
453 This example uses @code{\with}, which will be explained more
454 fully later. It is a means of modifying the default behavior
455 of a single Staff. Here it says that the new staff should be
456 placed above the staff called @qq{main} instead of the default
457 position which is below.
461 Ossia are often written without clef and without
462 time signature and are usually in a smaller font.
463 These require further commands which
464 have not yet been introduced. See @ref{Size of objects},
465 and @ruser{Ossia staves}.
468 @node On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
469 @subsection On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
471 @cindex brackets, nesting
472 @cindex bracket types
473 @cindex brackets, enclosing vs. marking
475 You have already met a number of different types of bracket and
476 bracket-like constructs in writing the input file to LilyPond.
477 These obey different rules which can be confusing at first.
478 Let's first review the different types of brackets and bracket-like
481 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
483 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
484 @headitem Bracket Type
486 @item @code{@{ @dots{} @}}
487 @tab Encloses a sequential segment of music
488 @item @code{< @dots{} >}
489 @tab Encloses the notes of a chord
490 @item @code{<< @dots{} >>}
491 @tab Encloses simultaneous music expressions
492 @item @code{( @dots{} )}
493 @tab Marks the start and end of a slur
494 @item @code{\( @dots{} \)}
495 @tab Marks the start and end of a phrasing slur
496 @item @code{[ @dots{} ]}
497 @tab Marks the start and end of a manual beam
500 To these we should add other constructs which generate lines
501 between or across notes: ties (marked by a tilde, @code{~}),
502 tuplets written as @code{\tuplet x/y @{ @dots{} @}}, and grace notes
503 written as @code{\grace @{ @dots{} @}}.
505 Outside LilyPond, the conventional use of brackets requires the
506 different types to be properly nested, like this, @code{<< [ @{ ( @dots{} )
507 @} ] >>}, with the closing brackets being encountered in exactly the
508 opposite order to the opening brackets. This @strong{is} a
509 requirement for the three types of bracket described by the word
510 @q{Encloses} in the table above -- they must nest properly. However,
511 the remaining bracket-like constructs, described with the word
512 @q{Marks} in the table above together with ties and tuplets, do
513 @strong{not} have to nest properly with any of the brackets or
514 bracket-like constructs. In fact, these are not brackets in
515 the sense that they enclose something -- they are simply markers to
516 indicate where something starts and ends.
518 So, for example, a phrasing slur can start before a manually
519 inserted beam and end before the end of the beam -- not very
520 musical, perhaps, but possible:
522 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
523 \relative { g'8\( a b[ c b\) a] g4 }
526 In general, different kinds of brackets, bracket-like constructs,
527 and those implied by tuplets, ties and grace notes, may be mixed
528 freely. This example shows a beam extending into a tuplet (line 1),
529 a slur extending into a tuplet (line 2), a beam and a slur
530 extending into a tuplet, a tie crossing two tuplets, and a
531 phrasing slur extending out of a tuplet (lines 3 and 4).
533 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
535 r16[ g' \tuplet 3/2 { r16 e'8] }
536 g,16( a \tuplet 3/2 { b16 d) e }
537 g,8[( a \tuplet 3/2 { b8 d) e~] } |
538 \tuplet 5/4 { e32\( a, b d e } a4.\)
543 @node Voices contain music
544 @section Voices contain music
546 Singers need voices to sing, and so does LilyPond.
547 The actual music for all instruments in a score
548 is contained in Voices -- the most fundamental
549 of all LilyPond's concepts.
552 * I'm hearing Voices::
553 * Explicitly instantiating voices::
554 * Voices and vocals::
557 @node I'm hearing Voices
558 @subsection I'm hearing Voices
562 @cindex multiple voices
563 @cindex voices, multiple
564 @cindex Voice context
565 @cindex context, Voice
566 @cindex simultaneous music
567 @cindex music, simultaneous
568 @cindex concurrent music
569 @cindex music, concurrent
570 @cindex voices vs. chords
571 @cindex chords vs. voices
573 The lowest, most fundamental or innermost layers in a LilyPond
574 score are called @q{Voice contexts} or just @q{Voices} for short.
575 Voices are sometimes called @q{layers} in other notation
578 In fact, a Voice layer or context is the only one which can contain
579 music. If a Voice context is not explicitly declared one is created
580 automatically, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter. Some
581 instruments such as an Oboe can play only one note at a time. Music
582 written for such instruments requires just a single voice. Instruments
583 which can play more than one note at a time like the piano will often
584 require multiple voices to encode the different concurrent notes and
585 rhythms they are capable of playing.
587 A single voice can contain many notes in a chord, of course,
588 so when exactly are multiple voices needed? Look first at
589 this example of four chords:
591 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
594 <d' g>4 <d fis> <d a'> <d g>
598 This can be expressed using just the single angle bracket chord
599 symbols, @code{< @dots{} >}, and for this just a single voice is
600 needed. But suppose the F-sharp were actually an eighth-note
601 followed by an eighth-note G, a passing note on the way to the A?
602 Now we have two notes which start at the same time but have
603 different durations: the quarter-note D and the eighth-note
604 F-sharp. How are these to be coded? They cannot be written as
605 a chord because all the notes in a chord must have the same
606 duration. And they cannot be written as two sequential notes
607 as they need to start at the same time. This is when two
610 Let us see how this is done in LilyPond input syntax.
615 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a
616 staff is to enter each voice as a sequence (with @code{@{ @dots{} @}}),
617 and combine them simultaneously with angle brackets, @code{<< @dots{} >>}.
618 The fragments must also be separated with double backward slashes,
619 @code{\\}, to place them in separate voices. Without these, the
620 notes would be entered into a single voice, which would usually
621 cause errors. This technique is particularly suited to pieces of
622 music which are largely homophonic with occasional short sections
625 Here's how we split the chords above into two voices and add both
626 the passing note and a slur:
628 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
631 % Voice = "1" Voice = "2"
632 << { g'4 fis8( g) a4 g } \\ { d4 d d d } >>
636 Notice how the stems of the second voice now point down.
638 Here's another simple example:
640 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
643 % Voice = "1" Voice = "2"
644 << { r4 g' g4. a8 } \\ { d,2 d4 g } >> |
645 << { bes4 bes c bes } \\ { g4 g g8( a) g4 } >> |
646 << { a2. r4 } \\ { fis2. s4 } >> |
650 It is not necessary to use a separate @code{<< \\ >>} construct
651 for each bar. For music with few notes in each bar this layout
652 can help the legibility of the code, but if there are many
653 notes in each bar it may be better to split out each voice
654 separately, like this:
656 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
659 \relative { % Voice = "1"
664 \relative { % Voice = "2"
673 @cindex voices, naming
674 @cindex voices crossing brackets
675 @cindex slurs crossing brackets
676 @cindex ties crossing brackets
678 This example has just two voices, but the same construct may be
679 used to encode three or more voices by adding more back-slash
682 The Voice contexts bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
683 The first contexts set the @emph{outer} voices, the highest
684 voice in context @code{"1"} and the lowest voice in context
685 @code{"2"}. The inner voices go in contexts @code{"3"} and
686 @code{"4"}. In each of these contexts, the vertical direction
687 of slurs, stems, ties, dynamics etc., is set appropriately.
689 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
690 \new Staff \relative {
693 % Voice = "1" Voice = "2" Voice = "3"
694 << { g4 f e } \\ { r8 e4 d c8~ } >> |
695 << { d2 e } \\ { c8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 } \\ { s4 b c2 } >> |
699 These voices are all separate from the main voice that contains
700 the notes just outside the @code{<< @dots{} >>} construct. Let's call
701 this the @emph{simultaneous construct}. Slurs and ties may only
702 connect notes within the same voice, so slurs and ties cannot go
703 into or out of a simultaneous construct. Conversely,
704 parallel voices from separate simultaneous constructs on the same
705 staff are the same voice. Other voice-related properties also
706 carry across simultaneous constructs. Here is the same example,
707 with different colors and note heads for each voice. Note that
708 changes in one voice do not affect other voices, but they do
709 persist in the same voice later. Note also that tied notes may be
710 split across the same voices in two constructs, shown here in the
713 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
714 \new Staff \relative {
743 @funindex \voiceOneStyle
744 @funindex \voiceTwoStyle
745 @funindex \voiceThreeStyle
746 @funindex \voiceFourStyle
747 @funindex \voiceNeutralStyle
749 The commands @code{\voiceXXXStyle} are mainly intended for use in
750 educational documents such as this one. They modify the color
751 of the note head, the stem and the beams, and the style of the
752 note head, so that the voices may be easily distinguished.
753 Voice one is set to red diamonds, voice two to blue triangles,
754 voice three to green crossed circles, and voice four (not used
755 here) to magenta crosses; @code{\voiceNeutralStyle} (also not
756 used here) reverts the style back to the default.
757 We shall see later how commands like these may be created by the
759 See @ref{Visibility and color of objects} and
760 @ref{Using variables for layout adjustments}.
762 @cindex polyphony and relative note entry
763 @cindex relative note entry and polyphony
765 Polyphony does not change the relationship of notes within a
766 @code{\relative} block. Each note is still calculated relative to
767 the note immediately preceding it, or to the first note of the
768 preceding chord. So in
771 \relative @{ noteA << < noteB noteC > \\ noteD >> noteE @}
775 @code{noteB} is relative to @code{noteA} @*
776 @code{noteC} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA}; @*
777 @code{noteD} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA} or
779 @code{noteE} is relative to @code{noteD}, not @code{noteA}.
781 An alternative way, which may be clearer if the notes in the
782 voices are widely separated, is to place a @code{\relative}
783 command at the start of each voice:
786 \relative @{ noteA @dots{} @}
788 \relative @{ < noteB noteC > @dots{} @}
790 \relative @{ noteD @dots{} @}
792 \relative @{ noteE @dots{} @}
795 Let us finally analyze the voices in a more complex piece of music.
796 Here are the notes from the first two bars of the second of Chopin's
797 Deux Nocturnes, Op 32. This example will be used at later stages in
798 this and the next chapter to illustrate several techniques for
799 producing notation, so please ignore for now anything in the
800 underlying code which looks mysterious and concentrate just on the
801 music and the voices -- the complications will all be explained in
804 @c The following should appear as music without code
805 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
806 \new Staff \relative {
812 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
813 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
815 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0.5
821 \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
829 The direction of the stems is often used to indicate the continuity of
830 two simultaneous melodic lines. Here the stems of the highest notes
831 are all pointing up and the stems of the lower notes are all pointing
832 down. This is the first indication that more than one voice is
835 But the real need for multiple voices arises when notes
836 which start at the same time have different durations.
837 Look at the notes which start at beat three in the first
838 bar. The A-flat is a dotted quarter note, the F is a
839 quarter note and the D-flat is a half note. These
840 cannot be written as a chord as all the notes in a chord
841 must have the same duration. Neither can they be written
842 as sequential notes, as they must start at the same time.
843 This section of the bar requires three voices, and the
844 normal practice would be to write the whole bar as three
845 voices, as shown below, where we have used different note heads
846 and colors for the three voices. Again, the code behind this
847 example will be explained later, so ignore anything you do
850 @c The following should appear as music without code
851 @c The three voice styles should be defined in -init
852 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
853 \new Staff \relative {
862 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
863 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
865 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0.5
868 \\ % No Voice three (we want stems down)
871 \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
880 Let us try to encode this music from scratch. As we
881 shall see, this encounters some difficulties. We begin as
882 we have learnt, using the @code{<< \\ >>} construct to
883 enter the music of the first bar in three voices:
885 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
886 \new Staff \relative {
889 { c''2 aes4. bes8 } \\ { <ees, c>2 des } \\ { aes'2 f4 fes }
896 @cindex voices and stem directions
897 @cindex stem directions and voices
900 The stem directions are automatically assigned with the
901 odd-numbered voices taking upward stems and the even-numbered
902 voices downward ones. The stems for voices 1 and 2 are right,
903 but the stems in voice 3 should go down in this particular piece
904 of music. We can correct this by skipping voice three
905 and placing the music in voice four. This is done by simply
906 adding another pair of @code{\\}.
908 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
909 \new Staff \relative {
915 \\ % Omit Voice three
924 We see that this fixes the stem direction, but the horizontal
925 placement of notes is not what we want. LilyPond shifts the
926 inner notes when they or their stems would collide with outer
927 voices, but this is not appropriate for piano music. In other
928 situations, the shifts LilyPond applies might fail to clear
929 the collisions. LilyPond provides several ways to adjust the
930 horizontal placing of notes. We are not quite ready yet to see
931 how to correct this, so we shall leave this problem until a
932 later section --- see the @code{force-hshift} property in
933 @ref{Fixing overlapping notation}.
935 @warning{Lyrics, spanners (such as slurs, ties, hairpins etc.) cannot be
936 created @q{across} voices.}
940 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
943 @node Explicitly instantiating voices
944 @subsection Explicitly instantiating voices
950 @funindex \voiceThree
957 @cindex voice contexts, creating
959 Voice contexts can also be created manually
960 inside a @code{<< >>} block to create polyphonic music, using
961 @code{\voiceOne} @dots{} @code{\voiceFour} to indicate the required
962 directions of stems, slurs, etc. In longer scores this method
963 is clearer, as it permits the voices to be separated and to be
964 given more descriptive names.
966 Specifically, the construct @code{<< \\ >>} which we used in
967 the previous section:
972 << @{ e'4 f g a @} \\ @{ c,4 d e f @} >>
982 \new Voice = "1" @{ \voiceOne \relative @{ e'4 f g a @} @}
983 \new Voice = "2" @{ \voiceTwo \relative @{ c'4 d e f @} @}
987 Both of the above would produce
989 @c The following example should not display the code
990 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
992 \new Voice = "1" { \voiceOne \relative { e'4 f g a } }
993 \new Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo \relative { c'4 d e f } }
997 @cindex voices, reverting to single
998 @cindex reverting to a single voice
1000 The @code{\voiceXXX} commands set the direction of stems, slurs,
1001 ties, articulations, text annotations, augmentation dots of dotted
1002 notes, and fingerings. @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceThree}
1003 make these objects point upwards, while @code{\voiceTwo} and
1004 @code{\voiceFour} make them point downwards. These commands also
1005 generate a horizontal shift for each voice when this is required
1006 to avoid clashes of note heads. The command @code{\oneVoice}
1007 reverts the settings back to the normal values for a single voice.
1009 Let us see in some simple examples exactly what effect
1010 @code{\oneVoice}, @code{\voiceOne} and @code{voiceTwo} have on
1011 markup, ties, slurs, and dynamics:
1013 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1015 % Default behavior or behavior after \oneVoice
1016 c'4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1020 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1023 c'4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1025 c,4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1029 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1032 c'4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1034 c,4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1038 Now let's look at three different ways to notate the same passage of
1039 polyphonic music, each of which is advantageous in different
1040 circumstances, using the example from the previous section.
1042 An expression that appears directly inside a @code{<< >>} belongs to the
1043 main voice (but, note, @strong{not} in a @code{<< \\ >>} construct).
1044 This is useful when extra voices appear while the main voice is playing.
1045 Here is a more correct rendition of our example. The red diamond-shaped
1046 notes demonstrate that the main melody is now in a single voice context,
1047 permitting a phrasing slur to be drawn over them.
1049 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1050 \new Staff \relative {
1052 % This section is homophonic
1054 % Start simultaneous section of three voices
1056 % Continue the main voice in parallel
1057 { g4 f e | d2 e) | }
1058 % Initiate second voice
1060 % Set stems, etc., down
1062 r8 e4 d c8~ | 8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 |
1064 % Initiate third voice
1066 % Set stems, etc, up
1074 @cindex nesting music expressions
1075 @cindex nesting simultaneous constructs
1076 @cindex nesting voices
1077 @cindex voices, temporary
1078 @cindex voices, nesting
1080 More deeply nested polyphony constructs are possible, and if a
1081 voice appears only briefly this might be a more natural way to
1084 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1085 \new Staff \relative {
1088 { g4 f e | d2 e) | }
1093 { c8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 | }
1104 @cindex spacing notes
1106 This method of nesting new voices briefly is useful
1107 when only small sections of the music
1108 are polyphonic, but when the whole staff is largely polyphonic
1109 it can be clearer to use multiple voices throughout, using
1110 spacing notes to step over sections where the voice is silent,
1113 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1114 \new Staff \relative <<
1115 % Initiate first voice
1118 c'16^( d e f g4 f e | d2 e) |
1120 % Initiate second voice
1122 % Set stems, etc, down
1124 s4 r8 e4 d c8~ | 8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 |
1126 % Initiate third voice
1128 % Set stems, etc, up
1135 @subsubheading Note columns
1138 @cindex note collisions
1139 @cindex collisions, notes
1140 @cindex shift commands
1147 @funindex \shiftOnnn
1150 Closely spaced notes in a chord, or notes occurring at the same
1151 time in different voices, are arranged in two, occasionally more,
1152 columns to prevent the note heads overlapping. These are called
1153 note columns. There are separate columns for each voice, and
1154 the currently specified voice-dependent shift is applied to the
1155 note column if there would otherwise be a collision. This can
1156 be seen in the example above. In bar 2 the C in voice two is
1157 shifted to the right relative to the D in voice one, and in the
1158 final chord the C in voice three is also shifted to the right
1159 relative to the other notes.
1161 The @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, @code{\shiftOnnn}, and
1162 @code{\shiftOff} commands specify the degree to which notes and
1163 chords of the voice should be shifted if a collision
1164 would otherwise occur. By default, the outer voices (normally
1165 voices one and two) have @code{\shiftOff} specified, while the
1166 inner voices (three and four) have @code{\shiftOn} specified.
1167 When a shift is applied, voices one and three are shifted to
1168 the right and voices two and four to the left.
1170 @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn} define further shift
1171 levels which may be specified temporarily to resolve collisions
1172 in complex situations -- see @ref{Real music example}.
1174 A note column can contain just one note (or chord) from a voice
1175 with stems up and one note (or chord) from a voice with stems
1176 down. If notes from two voices which have their stems in the
1177 same direction are placed at the same position and both voices
1178 have no shift or the same shift specified, the error message
1179 @qq{This voice needs a @code{@bs{}voiceXx} or @code{@bs{}shiftXx} setting}
1185 @ref{Moving objects}.
1188 @ruser{Multiple voices}.
1191 @node Voices and vocals
1192 @subsection Voices and vocals
1194 Vocal music presents a special difficulty: we need to combine two
1195 expressions -- notes and lyrics.
1197 @funindex \new Lyrics
1201 @cindex Lyrics context, creating
1202 @cindex lyrics, linking to voice
1204 You have already seen the @code{\addlyrics@{@}} command, which
1205 handles simple scores well. However, this technique is
1206 quite limited. For more complex music, you must introduce the
1207 lyrics in a @code{Lyrics} context using @code{\new Lyrics} and
1209 the lyrics to the notes with @code{\lyricsto@{@}}, using the
1210 name assigned to the Voice.
1212 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1214 \new Voice = "one" {
1218 c''4 b8. a16 | g4. f8 | e4 d | c2 |
1221 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
1222 No more let | sins and | sor -- rows | grow. |
1227 Note that the lyrics must be linked to a @code{Voice} context,
1228 @emph{not} a @code{Staff} context. This is a case where it is
1229 necessary to create @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts
1232 @cindex lyrics and beaming
1233 @cindex beaming and lyrics
1234 @funindex \autoBeamOff
1235 @funindex autoBeamOff
1237 The automatic beaming which LilyPond uses by default works well
1238 for instrumental music, but not so well for music with lyrics,
1239 where beaming is either not required at all or is used to indicate
1240 melismata in the lyrics. In the example above we use the command
1241 @code{\autoBeamOff} to turn off the automatic beaming.
1243 @funindex \new ChoirStaff
1244 @funindex ChoirStaff
1245 @funindex \lyricmode
1247 @cindex vocal score structure
1250 Let us reuse the earlier example from Judas Maccabæus to
1251 illustrate this more flexible technique. We first recast
1252 it to use variables so the music and lyrics can be separated
1253 from the staff structure. We also introduce a ChoirStaff
1254 bracket. The lyrics themselves must be introduced with
1255 @code{\lyricmode} to ensure they are interpreted as lyrics
1258 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1259 global = { \key f \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }
1261 SopOneMusic = \relative {
1262 c''8 | c8([ bes)] a a([ g)] f | f'4. b, | c4.~ 4
1264 SopOneLyrics = \lyricmode {
1265 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, __
1267 SopTwoMusic = \relative {
1268 r8 | r4. r4 c'8 | a'8([ g)] f f([ e)] d | e8([ d)] c bes'
1270 SopTwoLyrics = \lyricmode {
1271 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn,
1277 \new Voice = "SopOne" {
1281 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopOne" {
1286 \new Voice = "SopTwo" {
1290 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopTwo" {
1298 This is the basic structure of all vocal scores. More staves may be
1299 added as required, more voices may be added to the staves, more verses
1300 may be added to the lyrics, and the variables containing the music can
1301 easily be placed in separate files should they become too long.
1303 @cindex hymn structure
1304 @cindex SATB structure
1305 @cindex vocal scores with multiple verses
1306 @cindex multiple vocal verses
1307 @cindex verses, multiple vocal
1309 Here is an example of the first line of a hymn with four
1310 verses, set for SATB. In this case the words for all four
1311 parts are the same. Note how we use variables to separate the
1312 music notation and words from the staff structure. See too
1313 how a variable, which we have chosen to call @q{keyTime}, is used
1314 to hold several commands for use within the two staves. In other
1315 examples this is often called @q{global}.
1317 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1318 keyTime = { \key c \major \time 4/4 \partial 4 }
1320 SopMusic = \relative { c'4 | e4. e8 g4 g | a4 a g }
1321 AltoMusic = \relative { c'4 | c4. c8 e4 e | f4 f e }
1322 TenorMusic = \relative { e4 | g4. g8 c4. b8 | a8 b c d e4 }
1323 BassMusic = \relative { c4 | c4. c8 c4 c | f8 g a b c4 }
1326 \lyricmode { E -- | ter -- nal fa -- ther, | strong to save, }
1328 \lyricmode { O | Christ, whose voice the | wa -- ters heard, }
1330 \lyricmode { O | Ho -- ly Spi -- rit, | who didst brood }
1332 \lyricmode { O | Tri -- ni -- ty of | love and pow'r }
1338 \new Voice = "Sop" { \voiceOne \keyTime \SopMusic }
1339 \new Voice = "Alto" { \voiceTwo \AltoMusic }
1340 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseOne }
1341 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseTwo }
1342 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseThree }
1343 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseFour }
1347 \new Voice = "Tenor" { \voiceOne \keyTime \TenorMusic }
1348 \new Voice = "Bass" { \voiceTwo \BassMusic }
1356 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1359 @node Contexts and engravers
1360 @section Contexts and engravers
1362 Contexts and engravers have been mentioned informally
1363 in earlier sections; we now must look at
1364 these concepts in more detail, as they are important
1365 in the fine-tuning of LilyPond output.
1369 * Contexts explained::
1370 * Creating contexts::
1371 * Engravers explained::
1372 * Modifying context properties::
1373 * Adding and removing engravers::
1376 @node Contexts explained
1377 @subsection Contexts explained
1379 @cindex contexts explained
1381 When music is printed, many notational elements which do not
1382 appear explicitly in the input file must be added to the
1383 output. For example, compare the input and output of the
1386 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1387 \relative { cis''4 cis2. | a4 a2. | }
1390 The input is rather sparse, but in the output, bar lines,
1391 accidentals, clef, and time signature have been added. When
1392 LilyPond @emph{interprets} the input the musical information
1393 is parsed from left to right, similar to the way a performer
1394 reads the score. While reading the input, the program remembers
1395 where measure boundaries are, and which pitches require explicit
1396 accidentals. This information must be held on several levels.
1397 For example, an accidental affects only a single staff, while
1398 a bar line must be synchronized across the entire score.
1400 Within LilyPond, these rules and bits of information are grouped in
1401 @emph{Contexts}. We have already introduced the @code{Voice} context.
1402 Others are the @code{Staff} and @code{Score} contexts. Contexts are
1403 hierarchical to reflect the hierarchical nature of a musical score.
1404 For example: a @code{Staff} context can contain many @code{Voice}
1405 contexts, and a @code{Score} context can contain many @code{Staff}
1409 @sourceimage{context-example,5cm,,}
1412 Each context has the responsibility for enforcing some notation rules,
1413 creating some notation objects and maintaining the associated
1414 properties. For example, the @code{Voice} context may introduce an
1415 accidental and then the @code{Staff} context maintains the rule to
1416 show or suppress the accidental for the remainder of the measure.
1418 As another example, the synchronization of bar lines is, by default,
1419 handled in the @code{Score} context.
1420 However, in some music we may not want the bar lines to be
1421 synchronized -- consider a polymetric score in 4/4 and 3/4 time.
1422 In such cases, we must modify the default settings of the
1423 @code{Score} and @code{Staff} contexts.
1425 For very simple scores, contexts are created implicitly, and you need
1426 not be aware of them. For larger pieces, such as anything with more
1427 than one staff, they must be
1428 created explicitly to make sure that you get as many staves as you
1429 need, and that they are in the correct order. For typesetting pieces
1430 with specialized notation, it is usual to modify existing, or
1431 even to define totally new, contexts.
1433 In addition to the @code{Score,} @code{Staff} and
1434 @code{Voice} contexts there are contexts which fit between
1435 the score and staff levels to control staff groups, such as the
1436 @code{PianoStaff} and @code{ChoirStaff} contexts. There
1437 are also alternative staff and voice contexts, and contexts for
1438 lyrics, percussion, fret boards, figured bass, etc.
1440 The names of all context types are formed from one or more
1441 words, each word being capitalized and joined immediately to the
1442 preceding word with no hyphen or underscore, e.g.,
1443 @code{GregorianTranscriptionStaff}.
1447 Notation Reference: @ruser{Contexts explained}.
1450 @node Creating contexts
1451 @subsection Creating contexts
1455 @cindex new contexts
1456 @cindex creating contexts
1457 @cindex contexts, creating
1459 In an input file a score block, introduced with a @code{\score}
1460 command, contains a single music expression and an associated
1461 output definition (either a @code{\layout} or a @code{\midi} block).
1462 The @code{Score} context is usually left to be created automatically
1463 when the interpretation of that music expression starts.
1465 For scores with only one voice and one staff, the @code{Voice} and
1466 @code{Staff} contexts may also be left to be created automatically,
1467 but for more complex scores it is necessary to create them by hand.
1468 The simplest command that does this is @code{\new}. It is prepended
1469 to a music expression, for example
1472 \new @var{type} @var{music-expression}
1476 where @var{type} is a context name (like @code{Staff} or
1477 @code{Voice}). This command creates a new context, and starts
1478 interpreting the @var{music-expression} within that context.
1480 @warning{@bs{}@code{new Score} should not be used as the essential
1481 top-level @code{Score} context is created automatically when the music
1482 expression within the @bs{}@code{score} block is interpreted. Score-wide
1483 default values of context properties can be changed within the
1484 @bs{}@code{layout} block. See @ref{Modifying context properties}}
1486 You have seen many practical examples which created new
1487 @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts in earlier sections, but
1488 to remind you how these commands are used in practice, here's an
1489 annotated real-music example:
1491 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1492 \score { % start of single compound music expression
1493 << % start of simultaneous staves section
1495 \new Staff { % create RH staff
1498 \new Voice { % create voice for RH notes
1499 \relative { % start of RH notes
1505 \new Staff << % create LH staff; needs two simultaneous voices
1508 \new Voice { % create LH voice one
1510 \relative { % start of LH voice one notes
1511 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1512 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1513 } % end of LH voice one notes
1514 } % end of LH voice one
1515 \new Voice { % create LH voice two
1517 \relative { % start of LH voice two notes
1520 } % end of LH voice two notes
1521 } % end of LH voice two
1522 >> % end of LH staff
1523 >> % end of simultaneous staves section
1524 } % end of single compound music expression
1527 (Note how all the statements which open a block with either a
1528 curly bracket, @code{@{}, or double angle brackets, @code{<<},
1529 are indented by two further spaces, and the corresponding
1530 closing bracket is indented by exactly the same amount. While
1531 this is not required, following this practice will greatly
1532 reduce the number of @q{unmatched bracket} errors, and is
1533 strongly recommended. It enables the structure of the music to
1534 be seen at a glance, and any unmatched brackets will be obvious.
1535 Note too how the LH staff is created using double angle brackets
1536 because it requires two voices for its music, whereas the RH staff
1537 is created with a single music expression surrounded by curly
1538 brackets because it requires only one voice.)
1540 @cindex contexts, naming
1541 @cindex naming contexts
1543 The @code{\new} command may also give an identifying name to the
1544 context to distinguish it from other contexts of the same type,
1547 \new @var{type} = @var{id} @var{music-expression}
1550 Note the distinction between the name of the context type,
1551 @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}, etc, and the identifying name of a
1552 particular instance of that type, which can be any sequence of letters
1553 invented by the user. Digits and spaces can also be used in the
1554 identifying name, but then it has to be placed in quotes,
1555 i.e. @code{\new Staff = "MyStaff 1" @var{music-expression}}.
1556 The identifying name is used to
1557 refer back to that particular instance of a context. We saw this in
1558 use in the section on lyrics, see @ref{Voices and vocals}.
1562 Notation Reference: @ruser{Creating and referencing contexts}.
1565 @node Engravers explained
1566 @subsection Engravers explained
1570 Every mark on the printed output of a score produced by LilyPond
1571 is produced by an @code{Engraver}. Thus there is an engraver
1572 to print staves, one to print note heads, one for stems, one for
1573 beams, etc, etc. In total there are over 120 such engravers!
1574 Fortunately, for most scores it is not necessary to know about
1575 more than a few, and for simple scores you do not need to know
1578 Engravers live and operate in Contexts. Engravers such as the
1579 @code{Metronome_mark_engraver}, whose action and output apply to the
1580 score as a whole, operate in the highest level context -- the
1581 @code{Score} context.
1583 The @code{Clef_engraver} and @code{Key_engraver} are to be
1584 found in every @code{Staff} Context, as different staves may require
1585 different clefs and keys.
1587 The @code{Note_heads_engraver} and @code{Stem_engraver} live
1588 in every @code{Voice} context, the lowest level context of all.
1590 Each engraver processes the particular objects associated
1591 with its function, and maintains the properties that relate
1592 to that function. These properties, like the properties
1593 associated with contexts, may be modified to change the
1594 operation of the engraver or the appearance of those elements
1595 in the printed score.
1597 Engravers all have compound names formed from words which
1598 describe their function. Just the first word is capitalized,
1599 and the remainder are joined to it with underscores. Thus
1600 the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver} is responsible for creating the
1601 lines of the staff, the @code{Clef_engraver} determines and sets
1602 the pitch reference point on the staff by drawing a clef symbol.
1604 Here are some of the most common engravers together with their
1605 function. You will see it is usually easy to guess the function
1606 from the name, or vice versa.
1608 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
1611 @item Accidental_engraver
1612 @tab Makes accidentals, cautionary and suggested accidentals
1617 @item Completion_heads_engraver
1618 @tab Splits notes which cross bar lines
1619 @item Dynamic_engraver
1620 @tab Creates hairpins and dynamic texts
1621 @item Forbid_line_break_engraver
1622 @tab Prevents line breaks if a musical element is still active
1624 @tab Creates the key signature
1625 @item Metronome_mark_engraver
1626 @tab Engraves metronome marking
1627 @item Note_heads_engraver
1628 @tab Engraves note heads
1631 @item Staff_symbol_engraver
1632 @tab Engraves the five (by default) lines of the staff
1634 @tab Creates stems and single-stem tremolos
1635 @item Time_signature_engraver
1636 @tab Creates time signatures
1641 We shall see later how the output of LilyPond can be changed
1642 by modifying the action of Engravers.
1646 Internals reference: @rinternals{Engravers and Performers}.
1649 @node Modifying context properties
1650 @subsection Modifying context properties
1652 @cindex context properties
1653 @cindex context properties, modifying
1654 @cindex modifying context properties
1660 Contexts are responsible for holding the values of a number of
1661 context @emph{properties}. Many of them can be changed to
1662 influence the interpretation of the input and so change the
1663 appearance of the output. They are changed by the
1664 @code{\set} command. This takes the form
1667 \set @emph{ContextName}.@emph{propertyName} = #@emph{value}
1670 Where the @emph{ContextName} is usually @code{Score},
1671 @code{Staff} or @code{Voice}. It may be omitted,
1672 in which case the current context (typically @code{Voice}) is assumed.
1674 The names of context properties consist of words joined
1675 together with no hyphens or underscores, all except the
1676 first having a capital letter. Here are a few examples
1677 of some commonly used ones. There are many more.
1679 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
1681 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .15 .45 .15
1682 @headitem propertyName
1688 @tab If true, set extra natural signs before accidentals
1689 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1690 @item currentBarNumber
1692 @tab Set the current bar number
1696 @tab If true, print slurs both above and below notes
1697 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1698 @item instrumentName
1700 @tab Set the name to be placed at the start of the staff
1701 @tab @code{"Cello I"}
1704 @tab Increase or decrease the font size
1708 @tab Set the text to print before the start of a verse
1713 where a Boolean is either True (@code{#t}) or False (@code{#f}),
1714 an Integer is a positive whole number, a Real is a positive
1715 or negative decimal number, and text is enclosed in double
1716 apostrophes. Note the occurrence of hash signs,
1717 (@code{#}), in two different places -- as part of the Boolean
1718 value before the @code{t} or @code{f}, and before @emph{value}
1719 in the @code{\set} statement. So when a Boolean is being
1720 entered you need to code two hash signs, e.g., @code{##t}.
1722 @cindex properties operating in contexts
1723 @cindex setting properties within contexts
1725 Before we can set any of these properties we need to know
1726 in which context they operate. Sometimes this is obvious,
1727 but occasionally it can be tricky. If the wrong context
1728 is specified, no error message is produced, but the expected
1729 action will not take place. For example, the
1730 @code{instrumentName} clearly lives in the @code{Staff} context, since
1731 it is the staff that is to be named.
1732 In this example the first staff is labeled, but not the second,
1733 because we omitted the context name.
1735 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1737 \new Staff \relative {
1738 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
1741 \new Staff \relative {
1742 \set instrumentName = #"Alto" % Wrong!
1748 Remember the default context name is @code{Voice}, so the second
1749 @code{\set} command set the property @code{instrumentName} in the
1750 @code{Voice} context to @qq{Alto}, but as LilyPond does not look
1751 for any such property in the @code{Voice} context, no
1752 further action took place. This is not an error, and no error
1753 message is logged in the log file.
1755 Similarly, if the property name is mis-spelt no error message is
1756 produced, and clearly the expected action cannot be performed. In
1757 fact, you can set any (fictitious) @q{property} using any name you
1758 like in any context that exists by using the @code{\set} command. But
1759 if the name is not known to LilyPond it will not cause any action to
1760 be taken. Some text editors with special support for LilyPond input
1761 files document property names with bullets when you hover them with
1762 the mouse, like JEdit with LilyPondTool, or highlight unknown property
1763 names differently, like ConTEXT. If you do not use an editor with
1764 such features, it is recommended to check the property name in the
1765 Internals Reference: see @rinternals{Tunable context properties}, or
1766 @rinternals{Contexts}.
1768 The @code{instrumentName} property will take effect only
1769 if it is set in the @code{Staff} context, but
1770 some properties can be set in more than one context.
1771 For example, the property @code{extraNatural} is by
1772 default set to ##t (true) for all staves.
1773 If it is set to ##f (false) in one particular @code{Staff}
1774 context it applies just to the accidentals on that staff.
1775 If it is set to false in the @code{Score} context
1776 it applies to all staves.
1778 So this turns off extra naturals in one staff:
1780 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1782 \new Staff \relative {
1785 \new Staff \relative {
1786 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1793 and this turns them off in all staves:
1795 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1797 \new Staff \relative {
1800 \new Staff \relative {
1801 \set Score.extraNatural = ##f
1807 As another example, if @code{clefTransposition} is set in
1808 the @code{Score} context this immediately changes the value
1809 of the transposition in all current staves and sets a new default
1810 value which will be applied to all staves.
1812 The opposite command, @code{\unset}, effectively removes the
1813 property from the context, which causes most properties to
1814 revert to their default value. Usually @code{\unset} is not
1815 required as a new @code{\set} command will achieve what is
1818 The @code{\set} and @code{\unset} commands can appear anywhere
1819 in the input file and will take effect from the time they are
1820 encountered until the end of the score or until the property is
1821 @code{\set} or @code{\unset} again. Let's try changing the
1822 font size, which affects the size of the note heads (among
1823 other things) several times. The change is from the default
1824 value, not the most recently set value.
1826 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1829 % make note heads smaller
1832 % make note heads larger
1833 \set fontSize = #2.5
1835 % return to default size
1841 We have now seen how to set the values of several different types of
1842 property. Note that integers and numbers are always preceded by a
1843 hash sign, @code{#}, while a true or false value is specified by
1844 @code{##t} and @code{##f}, with two hash signs. A text property
1845 should be enclosed in double quotation signs, as above, although we
1846 shall see later that text can actually be specified in a much more
1847 general way by using the very powerful @code{\markup} command.
1849 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\with}
1853 @cindex context properties, setting with \with
1855 The default value of context properties may be set at the time the
1856 context is created. Sometimes this is a clearer way of setting a
1857 property value if it is to remain fixed for the duration of
1858 the context. When a context is created with a @code{\new}
1859 command it may be followed immediately by a @code{\with @{ @dots{} @}}
1860 block in which the default property values are set. For example,
1861 if we wish to suppress the printing of extra naturals for the
1862 duration of a staff we would write:
1865 \new Staff \with @{ extraNatural = ##f @}
1871 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1875 gisis'4 gis aeses aes
1878 \new Staff \with { extraNatural = ##f } {
1880 gisis'4 gis aeses aes
1886 Properties set in this way may still be changed dynamically using
1887 @code{\set} and returned to the default value set in the
1888 @code{\with} block with @code{\unset}.
1890 @cindex fontSize, default and setting
1892 So if the @code{fontSize} property is set in a @code{\with} clause
1893 it sets the default value of the font size. If it is later changed
1894 with @code{\set}, this new default value may be restored with the
1895 @code{\unset fontSize} command.
1897 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\context}
1899 @cindex context properties, setting with \context
1903 The values of context properties may be set in @emph{all} contexts
1904 of a particular type, such as all @code{Staff} contexts, with a single
1905 command. The context type is identified by using its
1906 type name, like @code{Staff}, prefixed by a back-slash: @code{\Staff}.
1907 The statement which sets the property value is the same as that in a
1908 @code{\with} block, introduced above. It is placed in a
1909 @code{\context} block within a @code{\layout} block. Each
1910 @code{\context} block will affect all contexts of the type specified
1911 throughout the @code{\score} or @code{\book} block in which the
1912 @code{\layout} block appears. Here is an example to show the format:
1914 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1930 If the property override is to be applied to all staves
1933 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1938 gisis'4 gis aeses aes
1943 gisis'4 gis aeses aes
1949 \Score extraNatural = ##f
1956 Context properties set in this way may be overridden for particular
1957 instances of contexts by statements in a @code{\with} block, and by
1958 @code{\set} commands embedded in music statements.
1963 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
1964 @ruser{The set command}.
1966 Internals Reference:
1967 @rinternals{Contexts},
1968 @rinternals{Tunable context properties}.
1971 @node Adding and removing engravers
1972 @subsection Adding and removing engravers
1974 @cindex engravers, adding
1975 @cindex adding engravers
1976 @cindex engravers, removing
1977 @cindex removing engravers
1984 We have seen that contexts each contain several engravers, each
1985 of which is responsible for producing a particular part of the
1986 output, like bar lines, staves, note heads, stems, etc. If an
1987 engraver is removed from a context, it can no longer produce its
1988 output. This is a crude way of modifying the output, but it
1989 can sometimes be useful.
1991 @subsubheading Changing a single context
1993 To remove an engraver from a single context we use the
1994 @code{\with} command placed immediately after the context creation
1995 command, as in the previous section.
1997 As an illustration, let's repeat an example from the previous section
1998 with the staff lines removed. Remember that the staff lines are
1999 produced by the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}.
2001 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2003 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
2007 \set fontSize = #-4 % make note heads smaller
2009 \set fontSize = #2.5 % make note heads larger
2011 \unset fontSize % return to default size
2016 @cindex ambitus engraver
2018 Engravers can also be added to individual contexts.
2019 The command to do this is
2021 @code{\consists @var{Engraver_name}},
2024 placed inside a @code{\with} block. Some vocal scores have an ambitus
2025 placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the range of notes in
2026 that staff -- see @rglos{ambitus}. The ambitus is produced by the
2027 @code{Ambitus_engraver}, which is not normally included in any
2028 context. If we add it to the @code{Voice} context, it calculates the
2029 range from that voice only:
2031 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2034 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2051 but if we add the ambitus engraver to the
2052 @code{Staff} context, it calculates the range from all
2053 the notes in all the voices on that staff:
2055 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2057 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2075 @subsubheading Changing all contexts of the same type
2080 The examples above show how to remove or add engravers to
2081 individual contexts. It is also possible to remove or add
2082 engravers to every context of a specific type by placing the
2083 commands in the appropriate context in a @code{\layout}
2084 block. For example, if we wanted to show an ambitus for every
2085 staff in a four-staff score, we could write
2087 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2116 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2123 The values of context properties may also be set
2124 for all contexts of a particular type by including the
2125 @code{\set} command in a @code{\context} block in the
2129 Notation Reference: @ruser{Modifying context plug-ins},
2130 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
2133 The @code{Stem_engraver} and @code{Beam_engraver} attach their
2134 objects to note heads. If the @code{Note_heads_engraver} is removed
2135 no note heads are produced and therefore no stems or beams are created
2139 @node Extending the templates
2140 @section Extending the templates
2142 You've read the tutorial, you know how to write music, you
2143 understand the fundamental concepts. But how can you
2144 get the staves that you want? Well, you can find lots of
2145 templates (see @ref{Templates}) which may give you a start.
2146 But what if you want something that isn't covered there? Read on.
2149 * Soprano and cello::
2150 * Four-part SATB vocal score::
2151 * Building a score from scratch::
2152 * Saving typing with variables and functions::
2153 * Scores and parts::
2156 @node Soprano and cello
2157 @subsection Soprano and cello
2159 @cindex template, modifying
2160 @cindex modifying templates
2162 Start off with the template that seems closest to what you want to
2163 end up with. Let's say that you want to write something for
2164 soprano and cello. In this case, we would start with the
2165 @q{Notes and lyrics} template (for the soprano part).
2168 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2170 melody = \relative @{
2177 text = \lyricmode @{
2183 \new Voice = "one" @{
2187 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
2194 Now we want to add a cello part. Let's look at the @q{Notes only} example:
2197 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2199 melody = \relative @{
2213 We don't need two @code{\version} commands. We'll need the
2214 @code{melody} section. We don't want two @code{\score} sections
2215 -- if we had two @code{\score}s, we'd get the two parts separately.
2216 We want them together, as a duet. Within the @code{\score}
2217 section, we don't need two @code{\layout} or @code{\midi}.
2219 If we simply cut and paste the @code{melody} section, we would
2220 end up with two @code{melody} definitions. This would not generate
2221 an error, but the second one would be used for both melodies.
2222 So let's rename them to make them distinct. We'll call the
2223 section for the soprano @code{sopranoMusic} and the section for
2224 the cello @code{celloMusic}. While we're doing this, let's rename
2225 @code{text} to be @code{sopranoLyrics}. Remember to rename both
2226 instances of all these names -- both the initial definition (the
2227 @code{melody = \relative @{ } part) and the name's use (in the
2228 @code{\score} section).
2230 While we're doing this, let's change the cello part's staff --
2231 celli normally use bass clef. We'll also give the cello some
2235 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2237 sopranoMusic = \relative @{
2244 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode @{
2248 celloMusic = \relative @{
2257 \new Voice = "one" @{
2261 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2268 This is looking promising, but the cello part won't appear in the
2269 score -- we haven't used it in the @code{\score} section. If we
2270 want the cello part to appear under the soprano part, we need to add
2273 \new Staff \celloMusic
2277 underneath the soprano stuff. We also need to add @code{<<} and
2278 @code{>>} around the music -- that tells LilyPond that there's
2279 more than one thing (in this case, two @code{Staves}) happening
2280 at once. The @code{\score} looks like this now:
2282 @c Indentation in this example is deliberately poor
2287 \new Voice = "one" @{
2291 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2293 \new Staff \celloMusic
2301 This looks a bit messy; the indentation is messed up now. That is
2302 easily fixed. Here's the complete soprano and cello template.
2304 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2305 sopranoMusic = \relative {
2312 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode {
2316 celloMusic = \relative {
2326 \new Voice = "one" {
2330 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2332 \new Staff \celloMusic
2341 The starting templates can be found in the @q{Templates} appendix,
2342 see @ref{Single staff templates}.
2345 @node Four-part SATB vocal score
2346 @subsection Four-part SATB vocal score
2348 @cindex template, SATB
2349 @cindex SATB template
2351 Most vocal scores of music written for four-part mixed choir
2352 with orchestral accompaniment such as Mendelssohn's Elijah or
2353 Handel's Messiah have the choral music and words on four
2354 staves, one for each of SATB, with a piano reduction of the
2355 orchestral accompaniment underneath. Here's an example
2356 from Handel's Messiah:
2358 @c The following should appear as music without code
2359 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2360 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2362 sopranoMusic = \relative {
2364 r4 d''2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2366 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2367 Wor -- thy | is the lamb | that was slain |
2370 altoMusic = \relative {
2372 r4 a'2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis e2 |
2374 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2376 tenorMusic = \relative {
2378 r4 fis'2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2380 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2382 bassMusic = \relative {
2384 r4 d'2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2386 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2391 r4 <a' d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2392 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2393 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2399 <d, d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2400 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2401 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2405 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2407 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2408 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2409 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2414 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2417 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2418 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2419 \new Voice = "altos" {
2424 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords }
2425 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2426 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2427 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2432 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords }
2433 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2434 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2435 \new Voice = "basses" {
2440 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2445 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2446 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2447 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2453 @warning{This layout can be achieved very easily using the built-in
2454 template: @code{satb.ly}, see @ref{Built-in templates}. But for ease
2455 of use this template deliberately hides the necessary context
2456 structure, instead providing it automatically. So for purposes of
2457 learning let us see how to build this up from scratch. You may need
2458 to do this if the built-in template does not meet your needs
2461 The nearest copy-and-edit template to this layout is
2462 @ref{SATB vocal score and automatic piano reduction} -- but we need
2463 to change the layout and add a piano
2464 accompaniment which is not derived automatically from the vocal parts.
2465 The variables holding the music and words for the vocal parts are
2466 fine, but we shall need to add variables for the piano reduction.
2468 The order in which the contexts appear in the ChoirStaff of the
2469 template do not correspond with the order in the vocal score shown
2470 above. We need to rearrange them so there are four staves with the
2471 words written directly underneath the notes for each part. All the
2472 voices should be @code{\voiceOne}, which is the default, so the
2473 @code{\voiceXXX} commands should be removed. We also need to specify
2474 the tenor clef for the tenors. The way in which lyrics are specified
2475 in the template has not yet been encountered so we need to use the
2476 method with which we are familiar. We should also add the names of
2479 Doing this gives for our ChoirStaff:
2483 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2484 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2485 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2490 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2493 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2494 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2495 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2500 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2503 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2504 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2505 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2510 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2513 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2514 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2515 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2520 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2526 Next we must work out the piano part. This is
2527 easy - we just pull out the piano part from the
2528 @q{Solo piano} template:
2532 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2533 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2534 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2538 and add the variable definitions for @code{upper}
2541 The ChoirStaff and PianoStaff must be combined
2542 using angle brackets as we want them to be
2543 stacked one above the other:
2546 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff one above the other
2548 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2549 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2554 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2557 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2558 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2563 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2566 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2567 \clef "G_8" % tenor clef
2568 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2573 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2576 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2578 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2583 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2589 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2590 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2591 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2596 Combining all these together and adding the music
2597 for the three bars of the example above gives:
2599 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2600 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2601 sopranoMusic = \relative {
2603 r4 d''2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2605 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2606 Wor -- thy | is the lamb | that was slain |
2608 altoMusic = \relative {
2610 r4 a'2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis fis2 |
2612 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2613 tenorMusic = \relative {
2615 r4 fis'2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2617 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2618 bassMusic = \relative {
2620 r4 d'2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2622 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2626 r4 <a' d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2627 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2628 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2633 <d, d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2634 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2635 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2639 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2641 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2642 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2643 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2648 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2651 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2652 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2653 \new Voice = "altos" {
2658 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" {
2661 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2662 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2663 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2668 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" {
2671 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2672 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2673 \new Voice = "basses" {
2678 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2684 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2685 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2686 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2693 @node Building a score from scratch
2694 @subsection Building a score from scratch
2696 @cindex template, writing your own
2697 @cindex example of writing a score
2698 @cindex writing a score, example
2699 @cindex score, example of writing
2701 After gaining some facility with writing LilyPond code, you
2702 may find that it is easier to build a score from scratch
2703 rather than modifying one of the templates. You can also
2704 develop your own style this way to suit the sort of music you
2705 like. Let's see how to put together the score for an organ
2706 prelude as an example.
2708 We begin with a header section. Here go the title, name
2709 of composer, etc, then come any variable definitions, and
2710 finally the score block. Let's start with these in outline
2711 and fill in the details later.
2713 We'll use the first two bars of Bach's prelude
2714 based on @emph{Jesu, meine Freude} which is written for two
2715 manuals and pedal organ. You can see these two bars of music
2716 at the bottom of this section. The top manual part has two voices,
2717 the lower and pedal organ one each. So we need four
2718 music definitions and one to define the time signature
2722 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2724 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2725 composer = "J S Bach"
2727 keyTime = @{ \key c \minor \time 4/4 @}
2728 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = @{ s1 @}
2729 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2730 ManualTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2731 PedalOrganMusic = @{ s1 @}
2737 For now we've just used a spacer note, @code{s1},
2738 instead of the real music. We'll add that later.
2740 Next let's see what should go in the score block.
2741 We simply mirror the staff structure we want.
2742 Organ music is usually written on three staves,
2743 one for each manual and one for the pedals. The
2744 manual staves should be bracketed together, so we
2745 need to use a PianoStaff for them. The first
2746 manual part needs two voices and the second manual
2751 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2753 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2756 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2758 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2759 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2763 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2764 >> % end PianoStaff context
2767 Next we need to add a staff for the pedal organ.
2768 This goes underneath the PianoStaff, but it must
2769 be simultaneous with it, so we need angle brackets
2770 around the two. Missing these out would generate
2771 an error in the log file. It's a common mistake
2772 which you'll make sooner or later! Try copying
2773 the final example at the end of this section,
2774 remove these angle brackets, and compile it to
2775 see what errors it generates.
2778 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2780 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2782 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2785 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2787 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2788 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2792 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2793 >> % end PianoStaff context
2794 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2802 It is not necessary to use the simultaneous construct
2803 @code{<< @dots{} >>} for the manual two staff and the pedal organ staff,
2804 since they contain only one music expression, but it does no harm,
2805 and always using angle brackets after @code{\new Staff} is a good
2806 habit to cultivate in case there are multiple voices. The opposite
2807 is true for Voices: these should habitually be followed by braces
2808 @code{@{ @dots{} @}} in case your music is coded in several variables
2809 which need to run consecutively.
2811 Let's add this structure to the score block, and adjust the indenting.
2812 We also add the appropriate clefs, ensure stems, ties and slurs in
2813 each voice on the upper staff point to the right direction with
2814 @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo}, and enter the key and time
2815 signature to each staff using our predefined variable, @code{\keyTime}.
2819 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2821 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2822 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2826 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2830 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2832 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2833 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2839 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2840 >> % end PianoStaff context
2841 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2847 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2849 @} % end Score context
2852 @cindex stretchability of staves
2853 @cindex staves, stretchability
2855 The above layout of the organ staves is almost perfect; however,
2856 there is a slight defect which is not visible by looking at just a
2857 single system: The distance of the pedal staff to the left hand staff
2858 should behave approximately the same as the right hand staff to the
2859 left hand staff. In particular, the stretchability of staves in a
2860 @code{PianoStaff} context is limited (so that the distance between
2861 the staves for the left and right hand can't become too large), and
2862 the pedal staff should behave similarly.
2864 @cindex sub-properties
2865 @cindex properties, sub-properties
2866 @cindex graphical objects
2867 @cindex objects, graphical
2870 Stretchability of staves can be controlled with the
2871 @code{staff-staff-spacing} property of the
2872 @code{VerticalAxisGroup} @q{graphical object} (commonly called
2873 @q{grob}s within the lilypond documentation) -- don't worry about
2874 the details right now; this is fully explained later. For the
2875 curious, have a look at @ruser{Overview of modifying properties}.
2876 In this case, we want to modify the @code{stretchability}
2877 sub-property only. Again, for the curious, you can find the
2878 default values for the staff-staff-spacing property
2879 in file @file{scm/define-grobs.scm} by looking up the definition
2880 of the @code{VerticalAxisGroup} grob. The value for
2881 @code{stretchability} is taken from the definition of the
2882 @code{PianoStaff} context (in file @file{ly/engraver-init.ly})
2883 so that the values are identical.
2887 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2889 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2890 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2894 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2898 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2900 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2901 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" \with @{
2902 \override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing.stretchability = 5
2909 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2910 >> % end PianoStaff context
2911 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2917 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2919 @} % end Score context
2921 That completes the structure. Any three-staff organ music
2922 will have a similar structure, although the number of voices
2923 may vary. All that remains now
2924 is to add the music, and combine all the parts together.
2926 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2928 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2929 composer = "J S Bach"
2931 keyTime = { \key c \minor \time 4/4 }
2932 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = \relative {
2936 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = \relative {
2937 ees'16 d ees8~ 16 f ees d c8 d~ d c~ |
2938 8 c4 b8 c8. g16 c b c d |
2940 ManualTwoMusic = \relative {
2941 c'16 b c8~ 16 b c g a8 g~ 16 g aes ees |
2942 f16 ees f d g aes g f ees d ees8~ 16 f ees d |
2944 PedalOrganMusic = \relative {
2945 r8 c16 d ees d ees8~ 16 a, b g c b c8 |
2946 r16 g ees f g f g8 c,2 |
2950 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2952 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2953 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2957 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2961 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2963 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2964 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" \with {
2965 \override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing.stretchability = 5
2972 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2973 >> % end PianoStaff context
2974 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2980 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff context
2982 } % end Score context
2989 @node Saving typing with variables and functions
2990 @subsection Saving typing with variables and functions
2995 By this point, you've seen this kind of thing:
2997 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2998 hornNotes = \relative { c''4 b dis c }
3007 You may even realize that this could be useful in minimalist music:
3009 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3010 fragmentA = \relative { a'4 a8. b16 }
3011 fragmentB = \relative { a'8. gis16 ees4 }
3013 violin = \new Staff {
3014 \fragmentA \fragmentA |
3015 \fragmentB \fragmentA |
3025 However, you can also use these variables (also known as
3026 macros, or user-defined commands) for tweaks:
3028 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3029 dolce = \markup { \italic \bold dolce }
3031 centreText = { \once \override TextScript.self-alignment-X = #CENTER }
3034 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
3037 violin = \relative {
3039 c''4._\dolce b8 a8 g a b |
3041 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e f g d |
3042 c4.\fthenp b8 c4 c-. |
3053 These variables are obviously useful for saving
3054 typing. But they're worth considering even if you
3055 only use them once -- they reduce complexity. Let's
3056 look at the previous example without any
3057 variables. It's a lot harder to read, especially
3061 violin = \relative @{
3063 c''4._\markup @{ \italic \bold dolce @} b8 a8 g a b |
3064 \once \override TextScript.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
3065 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e f g d |
3067 \dynamic f \italic \small @{ 2nd @} \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
3074 So far we've seen static substitution -- when LilyPond
3075 sees @code{\centreText}, it replaces it with the stuff that
3076 we've defined it to be (ie the stuff to the right of
3077 @code{centreText=}).
3079 LilyPond can handle non-static substitution, too (you
3080 can think of these as functions).
3082 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3084 #(define-music-function
3088 \once \override TextScript.padding = #padding
3092 c''4^"piu mosso" b a b
3094 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
3096 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
3100 Using variables is also a good way to reduce work if the
3101 LilyPond input syntax changes (see
3102 @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}). If
3103 you have a single definition (such as @code{\dolce}) for all your
3104 input files (see @ref{Style sheets}), then if the syntax changes, you
3105 only need to update your single @code{\dolce} definition,
3106 instead of making changes throughout every @file{.ly} file.
3109 @node Scores and parts
3110 @subsection Scores and parts
3112 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
3113 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Variables can
3114 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
3115 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
3116 both the part and the full score.
3118 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
3119 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
3120 of a horn/@/bassoon duo
3123 hornNotes = \relative @{
3125 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3130 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
3133 \include "horn-music.ly"
3136 instrument = "Horn in F"
3140 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
3147 \include "horn-music.ly"
3151 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
3152 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
3153 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
3154 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth upwards. Sounding
3155 @code{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the
3156 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
3157 in the following output
3159 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3160 \transpose f c' \relative {
3162 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3166 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
3167 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
3168 rest. It is entered with a capital @code{R} followed by a duration
3169 (@code{1}@tie{}for a whole note, @code{2}@tie{}for a half note,
3170 etc.). By multiplying the
3171 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
3172 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
3178 When printing the part, multi-measure rests must be compressed. There
3179 is a music function available to do this:
3182 \compressMMRests @{ ... @}
3185 Applying this to @code{hornNotes} gives:
3187 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3188 \compressMMRests \transpose f c' \relative {
3191 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3196 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
3197 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
3198 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
3201 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
3202 \include "horn-music.ly"
3205 \new Staff \hornNotes
3206 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
3213 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3219 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3224 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b4 bes |
3225 a8 e f4 | g4 d | gis4 f |
3232 @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}.
3236 @ruser{Writing parts},
3237 @ruser{Full measure rests},
3238 @ruser{Including LilyPond files}.