1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
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14 Tutorial guidelines: (different from policy.txt!)
15 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
16 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
18 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
20 Don't use any other relative=X commands.
22 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "es". I know it's not
23 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
24 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
26 - Add "Music Glossary: @rglos{foo}" to the *top* of the relevant
27 portions of the tutorial.
33 @chapter Common notation
35 This chapter explains how to create beautiful printed music
36 containing common musical notation, following the material in
40 * Single staff notation::
41 * Multiple notes at once::
47 @node Single staff notation
48 @section Single staff notation
50 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
54 * Accidentals and key signatures::
56 * Articulation and dynamics::
58 * Automatic and manual beams::
59 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
63 @node Accidentals and key signatures
64 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
66 @warning{New users are often confused by these -- please read the
67 warning at the bottom of this page, especially if you are not
68 familiar with music theory!}
70 @subheading Accidentals
73 @cindex accidentals and key signatures
86 Music Glossary: @rglos{sharp}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{double sharp},
87 @rglos{double flat}, @rglos{accidental}.
89 A @notation{sharp} pitch is made by adding @code{is} to the name,
90 and a @notation{flat} pitch by adding @code{es}. As you might
91 expect, a @notation{double sharp} or @notation{double flat} is
92 made by adding @code{isis} or @code{eses}. This syntax is derived
93 from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
94 like German and Dutch. To use other names for
95 @notation{accidentals}, see @ruser{Note names in other languages}.
97 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
101 @cindex key signature, setting
102 @subheading Key signatures
104 @cindex key signature
107 @cindex accidentals and key signature
108 @cindex content vs. layout
109 @cindex layout vs. content
118 Music Glossary: @rglos{key signature}, @rglos{major},
121 The @notation{key signature} is set with the command @code{\key}
122 followed by a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
124 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
133 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
135 Music Glossary: @rglos{accidental}, @rglos{key signature},
136 @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{natural}, @rglos{sharp},
137 @rglos{transposition}.
139 To determine whether to print an @notation{accidental}, LilyPond
140 examines the pitches and the @notation{key signature}. The key
141 signature only affects the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the
142 note's @notation{pitch}! This is a feature that often causes
143 confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.
145 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
146 layout. The alteration (@notation{flat}, @notation{natural sign} or
147 @notation{sharp}) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore
148 musical content. Whether an accidental (a @emph{printed} flat,
149 natural or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding
150 note is a question of layout. Layout is something that follows
151 rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to those
152 rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
153 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to
158 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
164 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add
165 @code{is} and type @code{cis} and @code{fis} in the input file.
167 The code @code{b} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just on
168 the middle line of the staff.} Rather, it means @qq{there is a
169 note with pitch B-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
170 @emph{does} get an accidental:
172 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
177 If the above seems confusing, consider this: if you were playing a
178 piano, which key would you hit? If you would press a black key,
179 then you @emph{must} add @code{-is} or @code{-es} to the note
182 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
183 effort when typing, but the advantage is that
184 @notation{transposing} is easier, and accidentals can be printed
185 according to different conventions. For some examples of how
186 accidentals can be printed according to different rules, see
187 @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
192 @ruser{Note names in other languages},
194 @ruser{Automatic accidentals},
195 @ruser{Key signature}.
202 @subsection Ties and slurs
206 @cindex slur, phrasing
207 @cindex phrasing slur
216 Music Glossary: @rglos{tie}.
218 A @notation{tie} is created by appending a tilde @code{~} to the
219 first note being tied.
221 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
229 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}.
231 A @notation{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The
232 starting note and ending note are marked with @code{(} and
233 @code{)} respectively.
235 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
236 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
239 @subheading Phrasing slurs
241 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}, @rglos{phrasing}.
243 Slurs to indicate longer @notation{phrasing} can be entered with
244 @code{\(} and @code{\)}. You can have both @notation{slurs}
245 and phrasing slurs at the same time, but you cannot have
246 simultaneous slurs or simultaneous phrasing slurs.
248 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
249 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
254 @cindex slurs versus ties
255 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
257 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}, @rglos{slur}, @rglos{tie}.
259 A @notation{slur} looks like a @notation{tie}, but it has a
260 different meaning. A tie simply makes the first note longer, and
261 can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs
262 indicate the @notation{articulation} of notes, and can be used on
263 larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties can be nested.
265 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
266 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
274 @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
277 @node Articulation and dynamics
278 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
281 @subheading Articulations
287 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}.
289 Common @notation{articulations} can be added to a note using a
290 dash @code{-} and a single character:
292 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
293 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
296 @subheading Fingerings
303 Music Glossary: @rglos{fingering}.
305 Similarly, @notation{fingering} indications can be added to a note
306 using a dash (@code{-}) and the digit to be printed:
308 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
312 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
313 you can specify a direction by replacing the dash (@code{-}) with
314 @code{^} (up) or @code{_} (down). You can also use multiple
315 articulations on the same note. However, in most cases it is best
316 to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
318 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
319 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
341 Music Glossary: @rglos{dynamics}, @rglos{crescendo},
344 @notation{Dynamic} signs are made by adding the markings (with a
345 backslash) to the note:
347 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
352 @notation{Crescendi} and @notation{decrescendi} are started with
353 the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}. The next dynamics sign, for
354 example @code{\f}, will end the (de)crescendo, or the command
355 @code{\!} can be used:
357 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
364 @ruser{Articulations and ornamentations},
365 @ruser{Fingering instructions},
370 @subsection Adding text
379 Text may be added to your scores:
381 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
385 Extra formatting may be added with the @code{\markup} command:
387 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
388 c1^\markup{ \bold espr}
390 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
397 @ruser{Writing text}.
400 @node Automatic and manual beams
401 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
404 @cindex automatic beams
406 @cindex beams, automatic
407 @cindex beams, manual
408 @cindex beams, by hand
413 @funindex \autoBeamOff
414 @funindex autoBeamOff
415 @funindex \autoBeamOn
418 Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}.
420 All @notation{beams} are drawn automatically:
422 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
423 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
426 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
427 manually. To correct just an occasional beam mark the first note
428 to be beamed with @code{[} and the last one with @code{]}.
430 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
431 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
434 If you want to turn off automatic beaming entirely or for an
435 extended section of music, use the command @code{\autoBeamOff}
436 to turn off automatic beaming and @code{\autoBeamOn} to turn it
439 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
449 @ruser{Automatic beams},
450 @ruser{Manual beams}.
453 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
454 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
456 @subheading Partial measure
460 @cindex partial measure
465 Music Glossary: @rglos{anacrusis}.
467 A pickup (or @notation{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
468 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
469 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
471 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
484 Music Glossary: @rglos{note value}, @rglos{triplet}.
486 @notation{Tuplets} are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It
487 takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The
488 duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction.
489 Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a
490 @notation{triplet} has 2/3 as its fraction
492 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
493 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
495 \times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
499 @subheading Grace notes
507 @funindex \acciaccatura
508 @funindex acciaccatura
509 @funindex \appoggiatura
510 @funindex acciaccatura
512 Music Glossary: @rglos{grace notes}, @rglos{acciaccatura},
513 @rglos{appoggiatura}.
515 @notation{Grace notes} are created with the @code{\grace} command,
516 although they can also be created by prefixing a music expression
517 with the keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}:
519 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
520 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
521 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
522 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
533 @node Multiple notes at once
534 @section Multiple notes at once
536 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
537 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
538 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
540 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
541 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
542 than one voice on the same staff.
545 * Music expressions explained::
548 * Combining notes into chords::
549 * Single staff polyphony::
553 @node Music expressions explained
554 @subsection Music expressions explained
556 @cindex music expression
557 @cindex expression, music
558 @cindex compound music expression
559 @cindex music expression, compound
561 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
562 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
564 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
568 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
569 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
572 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
576 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
577 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
578 one). The result is another music expression:
580 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
584 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
586 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
587 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
588 expressions, and they can contain other expressions, so you can
589 make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
598 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
601 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
602 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
603 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
604 operators (like @code{+}, @code{*} and @code{/}) and parentheses.
605 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
606 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
610 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
612 @cindex multiple staves
613 @cindex staves, multiple
615 @cindex combining expressions in parallel
616 @cindex parallel expressions
617 @cindex expressions, parallel
618 @cindex relative notes and simultaneous music
619 @cindex relative notes and parallel expressions
620 @cindex simultaneous music and relative notes
621 @cindex parallel expressions and relative notes
627 Music Glossary: @rglos{polyphony}.
629 This technique is useful for @notation{polyphonic} music. To
630 enter music with more voices or more staves, we combine
631 expressions in parallel. To indicate that two voices should play
632 at the same time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
633 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
634 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
635 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
636 notes) are combined simultaneously:
638 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
648 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
649 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
650 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
651 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
653 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
654 the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
655 @code{@bs{}relative} command.}
658 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
660 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
661 the beginning of the first expression. If there is a single note,
662 there is one staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there
663 is more than one staff. The following example shows a complex
664 expression, but as it begins with a single note it will be set
665 out on a single staff.
667 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
670 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
674 @node Multiple staves
675 @subsection Multiple staves
677 @cindex multiple staves
678 @cindex staves, multiple
680 @cindex context, notation
681 @cindex notation context
693 LilyPond input files are constructed out of music expressions, as
694 we saw in @ref{Music expressions explained}. If the score begins
695 with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates multiples
696 staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we create
697 each staff explicitly.
699 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
700 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
701 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
704 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
707 \new Staff { \clef treble c }
708 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
713 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
714 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
715 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
716 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
717 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
719 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
720 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
721 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
723 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
724 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
725 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
726 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
728 Time signatures entered in one staff affect all other staves by
729 default. On the other hand, the key signature of one staff does
730 @emph{not} affect other staves. This different default behavior
731 is because scores with transposing instruments are more common
732 than polyrhythmic scores.
734 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
737 \new Staff { \clef treble \key d \major \time 3/4 c }
738 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
747 @subsection Staff groups
761 Music Glossary: @rglos{brace}.
763 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a
765 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
766 @ref{Multiple staves}. However, now this entire expression is
767 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
776 Here is a small example:
778 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
781 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
782 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
787 Other staff groupings are introduced with @code{\new GrandStaff},
788 suitable for orchestral scores, and @w{@code{\new ChoirStaff}},
789 suitable for vocal scores. These staff groups each form another
790 type of context, one that generates the brace at the left end of
791 every system and also controls the extent of bar lines.
796 @ruser{Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments},
797 @ruser{Displaying staves}.
800 @node Combining notes into chords
801 @subsection Combining notes into chords
804 @cindex note durations in chords
810 Music Glossary: @rglos{chord}.
812 We saw earlier how notes can be combined into @notation{chords} by
813 indicating they are simultaneous by enclosing them in double angle
814 brackets. However, the normal way of indicating a chord is to
815 surround the pitches with @emph{single} angle brackets. Note that
816 all the notes in a chord must have the same duration, and that the
817 duration is placed after the closing bracket.
819 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
823 Think of chords as almost equivalent to single notes:
824 almost everything you can attach to a single note can be attached
825 to a chord, and everything must go @emph{outside} the angle
826 brackets. For example, you can combine markings like beams and
827 ties with chords. They must be placed outside the angle brackets.
829 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
830 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
831 r4 <c e g>8( <c e g>\> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
835 @node Single staff polyphony
836 @subsection Single staff polyphony
839 @cindex multiple voices
840 @cindex voices, more on one staff
841 @cindex single staff polyphony
845 @funindex << ... \\ ... >>
850 Polyphonic music in lilypond, while not difficult, uses concepts
851 that we haven't discussed yet, so we're not going to introduce
852 them here. Instead, the following sections introduce these concepts
853 and explain them thoroughly.
857 @ref{Voices contain music}.
860 @ruser{Simultaneous notes}.
865 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
868 * Setting simple songs::
869 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
870 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
874 @node Setting simple songs
875 @subsection Setting simple songs
883 Music Glossary: @rglos{lyrics}.
885 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
886 rhyme, @notation{Girls and boys come out to play}:
888 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
896 The @notation{lyrics} can be set to these notes, combining both
897 with the @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by
898 separating each syllable with a space.
900 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
908 Girls and boys come out to play,
913 Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics.
914 It is essential that the final syllable is separated from the
915 terminating curly bracket by a space or a newline, or it will be
916 assumed to be part of the syllable, giving rise to an obscure
917 error, see @rprogram{Apparent error in ../ly/init.ly}.
919 Note also the double angle brackets @w{@code{<< ... >>}} around the
920 whole piece to show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the
923 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
924 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
927 @cindex extender line
930 @cindex lyrics, aligning
931 @cindex aligning lyrics
932 @cindex lyrics, multi-syllable words
933 @cindex words with multiple syllables in lyrics
935 Music Glossary: @rglos{melisma}, @rglos{extender line}.
937 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @notation{The moon doth
938 shine as bright as day}. Let's extend it:
940 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
946 g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
949 Girls and boys come out to play,
950 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
955 We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes. The
956 word @notation{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one. This
957 is called a @notation{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more
958 than one note. There are several ways to spread a syllable over
959 multiple notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them, for
960 details, see @ref{Ties and slurs}:
962 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
968 g8 a4 b8 c( b) a d4 b8 g4.
971 Girls and boys come out to play,
972 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
977 The words now line up correctly with the notes, but the automatic
978 beaming for the notes above @notation{shine as} does not look right.
979 We can correct this by inserting manual beaming commands to override
980 the automatic beaming here, for details, see @ref{Automatic and
983 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
989 g8 a4 b8 c([ b]) a d4 b8 g4.
992 Girls and boys come out to play,
993 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
998 As an alternative to using slurs, the melismata may be indicated
999 in just the lyrics by using an underscore @code{_} for each note
1000 that should be included in the melisma:
1002 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1007 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1008 g8 a4 b8 c[ b] a d4 b8 g4.
1011 Girls and boys come out to play,
1012 The moon doth shine _ as bright as day;
1017 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1018 note an @notation{extender line} is usually drawn from the
1019 syllable extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is
1020 entered as two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the
1021 first three bars of @notation{Dido's Lament}, from Purcell's
1022 @notation{Dido and Æneas}:
1024 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1030 b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
1034 am laid __ in earth,
1039 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1040 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1041 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1042 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1043 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1044 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1046 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1047 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1048 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1054 d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
1058 A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
1059 no __ crib for a bed, __
1064 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1065 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1066 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1067 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in quotes.
1068 Here's an example from Rossini's @notation{Figaro}, where
1069 @notation{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @notation{go} of
1070 @notation{Largo} in Figaro's aria @notation{Largo al factotum}:
1072 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1073 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1074 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1080 c4.~ c8 d b c([ d]) b c d b c
1083 Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tÃ
1091 @ruser{Vocal music}.
1094 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1095 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1097 @cindex lyrics and multiple staves
1098 @cindex multiple staves and lyrics
1100 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1101 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1102 example from Handel's @notation{Judas Maccabæus}:
1104 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1110 c8 c([ bes]) a a([ g]) f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
1113 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
1119 r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g]) f f([ e]) d e([ d]) c bes'4
1122 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
1127 Scores any more complex than this simple example are better
1128 produced by separating out the score structure from the notes and
1129 lyrics with variables. These are discussed in @ref{Organizing
1130 pieces with variables}.
1135 @ruser{Vocal music}.
1139 @section Final touches
1141 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1142 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1143 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1146 * Organizing pieces with variables::
1148 * Absolute note names::
1149 * After the tutorial::
1153 @node Organizing pieces with variables
1154 @subsection Organizing pieces with variables
1157 @cindex variables, defining
1160 @cindex assigning variables
1161 @cindex using variables
1162 @cindex variables, using
1163 @cindex variables, characters allowed in
1164 @cindex characters allowed in variables
1166 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1167 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1168 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1169 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1172 With variables (also known as identifiers or macros), we can break
1173 up complex music expressions. A variable is assigned as
1177 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1180 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1181 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1182 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1184 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1185 violin = \new Staff {
1190 cello = \new Staff {
1205 The name of a variable must have alphabetic characters only, no
1206 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1208 Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1209 expression, but may be used as many times as required anywhere after
1210 they have been defined. They may even be used in a later definition
1211 of another variable, giving a way of shortening the input if a
1212 section of music is repeated many times.
1214 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1215 tripletA = \times 2/3 { c,8 e g }
1216 barA = { \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA }
1223 Variables may be used for many other types of objects in
1224 the input. For example,
1229 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1232 Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
1233 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1247 @subsection Adding titles
1251 @cindex header block
1256 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1257 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1258 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1259 underneath the version number.
1262 \version @w{"@version{}"}
1270 @dots{} music @dots{}
1274 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1275 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1276 @ruser{Creating titles}.
1279 @node Absolute note names
1280 @subsection Absolute note names
1283 @cindex note names, absolute
1284 @cindex absolute mode
1285 @cindex absolute values for pitches
1286 @cindex pitches, absolute values
1287 @cindex absolute note names
1289 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1290 This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
1291 defining pitches exists: absolute mode.
1293 If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
1294 absolute values. A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
1295 @code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
1296 @code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
1299 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1307 Here is a four-octave scale:
1309 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1324 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1325 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1327 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1331 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
1332 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
1336 All these quotes makes the input less readable and they are a source
1337 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1338 easier to read and type:
1340 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1344 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
1349 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1350 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1351 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1352 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1355 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1356 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1361 @node After the tutorial
1362 @subsection After the tutorial
1364 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1365 piece or two. Start by adding notes to one of the
1366 @ref{Templates}. If you need any notation that was not covered in
1367 the tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1368 @ruser{Musical notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1369 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1370 @ref{Extending the templates}.
1372 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1373 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1374 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1375 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1376 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1377 you have more experience.
1379 In this tutorial and in the rest of the Learning Manual, there is a
1380 paragraph @strong{See also} at the end of each section, which contains
1381 cross-references to other sections: you should not follow these
1382 cross-references at first reading; when you have read all of the
1383 Learning Manual, you may want to read some sections again and follow
1384 cross-references for further reading.
1386 If you have not done so already, @emph{please} read @ref{Overview
1387 of manuals}. There is a lot of information about LilyPond, so
1388 newcomers often do not know where they should look for help. If
1389 you spend five minutes reading that section carefully, you might
1390 save yourself hours of frustration looking in the wrong places!