1 @c -*- coding: latin-1; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
5 @c * more details about running lilypond; error messages,
6 @c compiling/viewing (emacs?)
7 @c * where to go from First steps+More basics?
9 @c Your first LilyPond score in 10 minutes?
14 This tutorial starts with a short introduction to the LilyPond music
15 language. After this first contact we will show you how to produce
16 printed output. Then you will be able to create and print your own
20 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
21 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
22 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
23 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image.
26 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,relative=2]
27 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
31 By cutting and pasting the full input into a test file, you have a
32 starting template for experiments. If you like learning in this way,
33 you will probably want to print out or bookmark
37 @ref{Cheat sheet}, which is a table listing all commands for quick
42 * Running LilyPond for the first time::
43 * More about pitches::
45 * Automatic and manual beams::
47 * Music expressions explained::
49 * Adding articulation marks to notes::
50 * Combining notes into chords::
51 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
52 * Commenting input files::
56 * Single staff polyphony::
58 * Organizing larger pieces::
59 * An orchestral part::
66 The first example demonstrates how to enter the most elementary piece
67 of music, a scale. A note can be entered by typing its name, from
68 @samp{a} through @samp{g}. So, if you enter
75 the result looks like this
77 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=1]
81 The duration of a note is specified by a number after the note name.
82 @samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a @rglos{half note},
83 @samp{4} for a @rglos{quarter note} and so on
89 @c FIXME: have NOTIME also remove Score.timing?
90 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=2]
91 \set Score.timing = ##f
92 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
93 { a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 s16_" " }
96 If you do not specify a @rglos{duration}, the duration last entered is
97 used for the next notes. The duration of the first note in input
104 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=2]
105 \set Score.timing = ##f
106 { a a8 a a2 a s16_" " }
110 Rests are entered just like notes, but with the name @samp{r}
117 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
118 \set Score.timing = ##f
122 Add a dot @samp{.} after the duration to get a @rglos{dotted note}
128 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=1]
129 \set Score.timing = ##f
130 { a2. a4 a8. a16 s16_" " }
133 The @rglos{meter} (or @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the
142 @c A clef here may lead to confusion, remove it.
143 @lilypond[fragment,quote]
144 \override Staff.Clef #'transparent = ##t
153 The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command
162 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
163 \set Score.timing = ##f
175 Remember to enclose the notes and commands in curly braces
176 @code{@{@tie{}@dots{}@tie{}@}} to convert it to printable output.
178 @lilypond[fragment,quote,noindent,linewidth=55\staffspace]
185 For more elaborate information on
189 @item Entering pitches and durations
191 @ref{Pitches}, and @ref{Durations}.
196 @item Time signatures and other timing commands
197 see @ref{Time signature}.
202 @node Running LilyPond for the first time
203 @section Running LilyPond for the first time
205 @c cheesy title to avoid clash with chapter name.
207 In the last section we explained what kind of things you could enter
208 in a LilyPond file. In this section we will explain what commands to
209 run and how to view or print the output. If you have not used
210 LilyPond before, want to test your setup, or want to run an example
211 file yourself, read this section. The instructions that follow are
212 for Unix-like systems. Some additional instructions for Microsoft
213 Windows are given at the end of this section.
215 Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor. For
216 example, you could open an xterm and execute
217 @code{joe}.@footnote{There are macro files for VIM addicts, and there
218 is a @code{LilyPond-mode} for Emacs addicts. If they have not been
219 installed already, refer to
220 @c FIXME lousy reference.
221 the file @file{INSTALL.txt}.} In your text editor, enter the following
222 input and save the file as @file{test.ly}
229 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows
236 You will see something resembling
239 lilypond (GNU LilyPond) 2.2.0
241 Now processing `/home/fred/ly/test.ly'
243 Interpreting music...[1]
244 @emph{... more interesting stuff ... }
245 DVI output to `test.dvi'...
246 PDF output to `test.pdf'...
247 PS output to `test.ps'...
251 @cindex Viewing music
254 The result is the file @file{test.pdf}@footnote{For @TeX{}
255 aficionados: there is also a @file{test.dvi} file. It can be viewed
256 with @code{xdvi}. The DVI uses a lot of PostScript specials, which do
257 not show up in the magnifying glass. The specials also mean that the
258 DVI file cannot be processed with @code{dvilj}. Use @code{dvips} for
263 } which you can print or with the standard facilities of your
264 operating system.@footnote{If your system does not have any tools
265 installed, you can try
266 @uref{http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/,Ghostscript}, a freely available
267 package for viewing and printing PDF and PostScript files.}
269 On Windows, start up a text-editor@footnote{Any simple or
270 programmer-oriented editor will do, for example Notepad. Do not use a
271 word processor, since these insert formatting codes that will confuse
278 Save it on the desktop as @file{test.ly} and make sure that it is not
279 called @file{test.ly.TXT}. Double clicking @file{test.ly} will process
280 the file and show the resulting PDF file.
283 @node More about pitches
284 @section More about pitches
286 A @rglos{sharp} (@texisharp{}) pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to
287 the name, a @rglos{flat} (@texiflat{}) pitch by adding @samp{es}. As
288 you might expect, a @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is
289 made by adding @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax
290 derived from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
291 like German and Dutch.}
297 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
298 \set Score.timing = ##f
299 \transpose c c' { cis1 ees fisis aeses s16_" " }
302 @cindex key signature, setting
303 The key signature is set with the command @code{\key}, followed by
304 a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}
313 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,fragment]
321 Key signatures together with the pitches (including alterations) are
322 used to determine when to print accidentals. This is a
323 feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it
327 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
328 layout. The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part of
329 the pitch, and is therefore musical content. Whether an accidental (a
330 flat, natural or sharp @emph{sign}) is printed in front of the
331 corresponding note is a question of layout. Layout is something that
332 follows rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to
333 those rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
334 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
338 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment]
344 no note has an explicit accidental, but you still must enter
352 The code @samp{d} does not mean `print a black dot just below the
353 staff.' Rather, it means: `a note with pitch D-natural.' In the key
354 of A-flat major, it does get an accidental
356 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
361 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more effort
362 when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is easier, and
363 accidentals can be printed according to different conventions. See
364 @ref{Accidentals}, for some examples how accidentals can be printed
365 according to different rules.
368 For more information on
373 see @ref{Accidentals}.
376 see @ref{Key signature}.
381 @section Entering ties
384 A tie is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the first note
387 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim,relative=3]
391 For more information on Ties see @ref{Ties}.
395 @node Automatic and manual beams
396 @section Automatic and manual beams
398 @cindex beams, by hand
399 Beams are drawn automatically
401 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
406 If you do not like where beams are put, they can be entered by
407 hand. Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the last one
410 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
414 For more information on beams, see @ref{Beaming}.
417 Here are key signatures, accidentals and ties in action
419 @lilypond[fragment,quote,noindent,linewidth=50\staffspace,verbatim]
426 fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4 a8 gis~
435 There are some interesting points to note in this example. Bar lines
436 and beams are drawn automatically. Line breaks are calculated
437 automatically; it does not matter where the line breaks are in the
438 source file. Finally, the order in which time, key and clef changes
439 are entered is not relevant: in the printout, these are ordered
440 according to standard notation conventions.
445 @section Octave entry
448 @c Tim wants to move this quotes example just before the: quotes-do not-work
449 @c score, but we'd need to remove quotes from the other two (key and
452 @c better to have this just before the `octaves are bad' snipped
453 @c but we'd need to remove the ', from \key and tie
454 To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote @code{'} (apostrophe) to
455 the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a `low quote' @code{,}
456 (a comma). Middle C is @code{c'}
458 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim]
459 c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
462 An example of the use of quotes is in the following Mozart fragment
464 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
467 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
468 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
472 The last example shows that music in a high register needs lots of quotes.
473 This makes the input less readable, and it is a source of errors. The
474 solution is to use `relative octave' mode. This is the
475 most convenient way to copy existing music.
477 In relative mode, a note without octavation quotes (i.e. the @code{'}
478 or @code{,} after a note) is chosen so it it is closest to the
479 previous one. For example, @samp{c f} goes up while @samp{c g} goes
482 To use relative mode, add @code{\relative} before the piece of
483 music. The first note is taken relative to the middle C
484 @c no , for this sentence
489 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim]
496 Since most music has small intervals, pieces can be written almost
497 without octavation quotes in relative mode. The previous example is
500 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
504 cis'8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
509 @c needed better, maybe even redundant explanation
510 @c added another example below.
511 @c grappig: Pa vond het heel logies, en slim toen-i eenmaal begreep.
512 @c in eerste instantie drong het `relative' niet door zonder extra uitleg.
513 Larger intervals are made by adding octavation quotes.
515 @lilypond[quote,notime,verbatim,fragment]
521 In summary, quotes or commas no longer determine the absolute height
522 of a note in @code{\relative} mode. Rather, the height of a note is
523 relative to the previous one, and changing the octave of a single note
524 shifts all following notes an octave up or down.
526 For more information on Relative octaves see @ref{Relative octaves},
527 and @ref{Octave check}.
530 @node Music expressions explained
531 @section Music expressions explained
534 In input files, music is represent by so-called @emph{music
535 expression}. We have already seen in the previous examples;
536 a single note is a music expression
538 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
542 Enclosing group of notes in braces creates a new music
545 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
549 Putting a bunch of music expressions (notes) in braces, means that
550 they should be played in sequence. The result again is a music
551 expression, which can be grouped with other expressions sequentially.
552 Here, the expression from the previous example is combined with two
555 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
559 This technique is useful for non-monophonic music. To enter music
560 with more voices or more staves, we also combine expressions in
561 parallel. Two voices that should play at the same time, are entered
562 as a simultaneous combination of two sequences. A `simultaneous'
563 music expression is formed by enclosing expressions in @code{<<} and
564 @code{>>}. In the following example, three sequences (all containing
565 two other notes) are combined simultaneously
567 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
575 This mechanism is similar to mathematical
576 formulas: a big formula is created by composing small formulas. Such
577 formulas are called expressions, and their definition is recursive, so
578 you can make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
587 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
591 @cindex music expression
592 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is contained
593 in the next one. The simplest expressions are numbers, and larger
594 ones are made by combining expressions with operators (like @samp{+},
595 @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses. Like mathematical expressions,
596 music expressions can be nested arbitrarily deep, which is necessary
597 for complex music like polyphonic scores.
599 Note that this example only has one staff, whereas
600 the previous example had three seperate staves. That is because this
601 example begins with a single note. To determine the number of staves,
602 LilyPond looks at the first element. If it is a single note, there is one
603 staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one staff.
605 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
608 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
612 Music files with deep nesting can be confusing to enter and
613 maintain. One convention that helps against this confusion is
614 indenting. When entering a file with deep nesting of braces and
615 angles, it is customary to use an indent that indicates the nesting
616 level. Formatting music like this eases reading and helps you insert
617 the right number of closing braces at the end of an expression. For
631 Some editors have special support for entering LilyPond, and can help
632 indenting source files. See @ref{Editor support} for more information.
637 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
638 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
639 @code{Staff} elements are then combined parallel with @code{<<} and
640 @code{>>}, as demonstrated here
642 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
644 \new Staff { \clef treble c'' }
645 \new Staff { \clef bass c }
650 The command @code{\new} introduces a `notation context.' A notation
651 context is an environment in which musical events (like notes or
652 @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple pieces, such
653 notation contexts are created automatically. For more complex pieces, it
654 is best to mark contexts explicitly. This ensures that each fragment
657 There are several types of contexts. @code{Staff}, @code{Voice} and
658 @code{Score} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets lyric
659 texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
661 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
662 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the minus
663 sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an expression, so
664 @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
666 We can now typeset a melody with two staves
668 @c TODO: (c) status of this Paul McCartney (?) song (let's all stand together)
670 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,raggedright]
687 For more information on context see the description in
688 @ref{Interpretation contexts}.
692 @node Adding articulation marks to notes
693 @section Adding articulation marks to notes
699 Common accents can be added to a note using a dash (@samp{-}) and a
702 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
703 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
707 Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a dash
708 (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed
710 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
714 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but you
715 can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_} (down). You can
716 also use multiple articulations on the same note. In most cases, it is
717 best to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
719 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
720 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
723 Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash) to
726 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
734 Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<} and
735 @code{\>}. An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will finish the
736 crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used
738 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
746 A slur is a curve drawn across many notes, and indicates legato
747 articulation. The starting note and ending note are marked with
748 @samp{(} and @samp{)}, respectively
750 @lilypond[fragment,quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
751 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
754 @cindex slurs versus ties
755 A slur looks like a tie, but it has a different meaning. A tie simply
756 makes the first note sound longer, and can only be used on pairs of
757 notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the articulations of notes,
758 and can be used on larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties can be
761 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2]
762 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
765 @cindex phrasing slurs
766 Slurs to indicate phrasing can be entered with @code{\(} and
767 @code{\)}, so you can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs at the
770 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
771 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis, c\)
775 For more information on
780 see @ref{Fingering instructions}.
782 see @ref{Articulations}.
786 see @ref{Phrasing slurs}.
793 @node Combining notes into chords
794 @section Combining notes into chords
797 Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with angle brackets.
798 Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.
800 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
805 You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They must
806 be placed outside the angled brackets
808 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
809 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>
813 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>\!)
816 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment]
818 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>\!)
822 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
823 @section Advanced rhythmic commands
827 @cindex partial measure
828 A pickup is entered with the keyword @code{\partial}. It
829 is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4} is a quarter note upstep
830 and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note
832 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
839 Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two
840 arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the piece
841 of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes occupy
842 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its fraction
844 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
845 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
851 Grace notes are also made by prefixing a music expression with the
852 keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}
856 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
857 c4 \appoggiatura b16 c4
858 c4 \acciaccatura b16 c4
863 For more information on
868 see @ref{Grace notes},
872 see @ref{Partial measures}.
877 @node Commenting input files
878 @section Commenting input files
882 @cindex block comment
883 A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it is
884 ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed output.
885 There are two types of comments. The percent symbol @samp{%}
886 introduces a line comment; after @code{%} the rest of the line is
887 ignored. A block comments marks a whole section of music
888 input. Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}} is
889 ignored. The following fragment shows possible uses for comments
892 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
896 This line, and the notes below
897 are ignored, since they are in a
904 @c TODO post-3.0 reorg
905 @c This is good info, but I wouldn't call it a comment. IMO it should
906 @c be moved somewhere else.
910 There is a special statement that is a kind of comment. The @code{\version}
911 statement marks for which version of LilyPond the file was written.
912 To mark a file for version 3.0.0, use
919 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
920 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special program,
921 @file{convert-ly} (see @ref{Invoking convert-ly}), and it uses
922 @code{\version} to determine what rules to apply.
925 @node Printing lyrics
926 @section Printing lyrics
929 @c TODO: (c) status of the Queen fragment.
933 Lyrics are entered by separating each syllable with a space
941 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
943 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
944 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
948 The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
949 @code{\addlyrics} keyword
951 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
954 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
955 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
957 \addlyrics { I want to break free }
962 @cindex extender line
964 This melody ends on a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable (`free')
965 sung to more than one note. This is indicated with an @emph{extender
966 line}. It is entered as two underscores, i.e.,
969 @{ I want to break free __ @}
972 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright]
975 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
976 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
978 \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
982 Similarly, hyphens between words can be entered as two dashes,
983 resulting in a centered hyphen between two syllables
986 Twin -- kle twin -- kle
989 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright]
995 \addlyrics { Twin -- kle twin -- kle }
999 More options, like putting multiple lines of lyrics below a melody are
1000 discussed in @ref{Vocal music}.
1004 @section A lead sheet
1010 @c TODO: revise this, \chords { } is shorter and more intuitive.
1012 In popular music, it is common to denote accompaniment with chord names.
1013 Such chords can be entered like notes,
1015 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
1016 \chordmode { c2 f4. g8 }
1020 Now each pitch is read as the root of a chord instead of a note.
1021 This mode is switched on with @code{\chordmode}
1023 Other chords can be created by adding modifiers after a colon. The
1024 following example shows a few common modifiers
1026 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
1027 \chordmode { c2 f4:m g4:maj7 gis1:dim7 }
1030 For lead sheets, chords are not printed on staves, but as names on a
1031 line of themselves. This is achieved by using @code{\chords} instead
1032 of @code{\chordmode}. This uses the same syntax as @code{\chordmode},
1033 but renders the notes in a @code{ChordNames} context, with the
1036 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
1037 \chords { c2 f4.:m g4.:maj7 gis8:dim7 }
1041 When put together, chord names, lyrics and a melody form
1042 a lead sheet, for example,
1046 \chords @{ @emph{chords} @}
1048 \addlyrics @{ @emph{the text} @}
1053 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1055 \chords { r2 c:sus4 f }
1057 r4 c' \times 2/3 { f g g }
1058 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
1060 \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
1064 A complete list of modifiers and other options for layout can be found
1069 @section Adding titles
1071 Bibliographic information is entered in a separate block, the
1072 @code{\header} block. The name of the piece, its composer, etc., are
1073 entered as an assignment, within @code{\header
1074 @{@tie{}@dots{}@tie{}@}}. The @code{\header} block is usually put at
1075 the top of the file. For example,
1080 composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
1087 When the file is processed the title and composer are printed above
1088 the music. More information on titling can be found in @ref{Creating
1092 @node Single staff polyphony
1093 @section Single staff polyphony
1096 @cindex multiple voices
1097 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1098 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they are
1099 printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems, slurs and
1100 beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the bottom voice has
1103 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence (with
1104 @code{@{...@}}), and combining those simultaneously, separating the
1105 voices with @code{\\}
1107 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1108 << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
1112 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be convenient;
1113 these are rests that do not print. They are useful for filling up
1114 voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the same example with a
1115 spacer rest (@code{s}) instead of a normal rest (@code{r}),
1117 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1118 << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
1123 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily
1125 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1133 { <c, g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1139 More features of polyphonic typesetting in the notation manual are
1140 described in @ref{Polyphony}.
1144 @section Piano staves
1146 @cindex staff switch, manual
1147 @cindex cross staff voice, manual
1148 @cindex @code{\context}
1149 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace. Printing
1150 such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in @ref{More staves},
1153 << \new Staff @{ @dots{} @}
1154 \new Staff @{ @dots{} @} >>
1158 but now this entire expression must be interpreted as a
1162 \new PianoStaff << \new Staff @dots{} >>
1165 Here is a small example
1167 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=1,fragment]
1169 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 c g' g }
1170 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1174 More information on formatting piano music is in @ref{Piano music}.
1177 @node Organizing larger pieces
1178 @section Organizing larger pieces
1180 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1181 larger files, the @code{\score} blocks get a lot bigger, because the
1182 music expressions are longer, and, in the case of polyphonic pieces,
1183 more deeply nested. Such large expressions can become unwieldy.
1185 By using variables, also known as identifiers, it is possible to break
1186 up complex music expressions. An identifier is assigned as follows
1189 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1193 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic}, can be used
1194 later by preceding the name with a backslash, i.e., @code{\namedMusic}.
1195 In the next example, a two-note motive is repeated two times by using
1196 variable substitution
1198 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,nofragment]
1202 { \seufzer \seufzer }
1205 The name of an identifier should have alphabetic characters only; no
1206 numbers, underscores or dashes. The assignment should be outside of
1209 It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in the
1215 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1218 Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different
1219 places. The following example uses the above variables
1229 More information on the possible uses of identifiers is in the
1230 technical manual, in @ref{Input variables and Scheme}.
1231 @c fixme: the ref is too technical.
1234 @node An orchestral part
1235 @section An orchestral part
1237 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
1238 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Identifiers can
1239 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
1240 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
1241 both the part and the score.
1243 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
1244 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
1245 of a horn/bassoon duo
1248 hornNotes = \relative c @{
1255 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
1258 \include "horn-music.ly"
1260 instrument = "Horn in F"
1264 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
1271 \include "horn-music.ly"
1275 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
1276 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
1277 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
1278 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth downwards. Sounding
1279 @samp{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with
1280 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
1281 in the following output
1283 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1284 \transpose f c' \relative c {
1290 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
1291 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
1292 rest. It is entered with a capital @samp{R} followed by a duration
1293 (1@tie{}for a whole note, 2@tie{}for a half note, etc.). By multiplying the
1294 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
1295 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
1301 When printing the part, multi-rests
1302 must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable
1305 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
1309 This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the
1310 @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and
1311 this option to the music above, leads to the following result
1313 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1314 \transpose f c' \relative c {
1316 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
1323 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
1324 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
1325 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
1328 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
1329 \include "horn-music.ly"
1332 \new Staff \hornNotes
1333 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
1340 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1348 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b bes |
1349 a8 e f4 | g d | gis f
1354 More in-depth information on preparing parts and scores can be found
1355 in the notation manual; see @ref{Orchestral music}.
1357 Setting run-time variables (`properties') is discussed in
1358 @ref{Changing context properties on the fly}.
1365 * discuss expectations (?)
1369 * overview of chapters?