modified: Documentation/user/tutorial.itely

[lilypond.git] / Documentation / user / tutorial.itely

@c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
@c This file is part of lilypond-learning.tely
@ignore
    Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH

    When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
    version that you are working on.  See TRANSLATION for details.
@end ignore

@c \version "2.12.0"

@ignore
Tutorial guidelines:  (different from policy.txt!)
- unless you have a really good reason, use either
    @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
  or
    @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]

  Don't use any other relative=X commands.

- use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "es".  I know it's not
  correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
  until we get to the Basic notation chapter.

- Add "Music Glossary: @rglos{foo}" to the *top* of the relevant
  portions of the tutorial.

@end ignore


@node Tutorial
@chapter Tutorial

This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
language and explains how to produce printed music.  After this first
contact we will explain how to create beautiful printed music
containing common musical notation.

@menu
* First steps::
* Single staff notation::
* Multiple notes at once::
* Songs::
* Final touches::
@end menu


@node First steps
@section First steps

This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.

@menu
* Compiling a file::
* Simple notation::
* Working on input files::
* How to read the manual::
@end menu


@node Compiling a file
@subsection Compiling a file

@cindex compiling
@cindex first example
@cindex example, first
@cindex case sensitive

@qq{Compiling} is the term used for processing an input file
in LilyPond format to produce a file which can be printed and
(optionally) a MIDI file which can be played.  LilyPond input
files are simple text files.  The first example
shows what a simple input file looks like.

To create sheet music, we write an input file that specifies the
notation.  For example, if we write:

@example
@{
  c' e' g' e'
@}
@end example

@noindent
the result looks like this:

@c  in this case we don't want verbatim
@lilypond[quote]
{
  c' e' g' e'
}
@end lilypond

@warning{Notes and lyrics in LilyPond input must always be
surrounded by @strong{@{ curly braces @}}.  The braces
should also be surrounded by a space unless they are at the
beginning or end of a line to avoid ambiguities.  The braces may
be omitted in some examples in this manual, but don't forget them
in your own music!  For more information about the display of
examples in the manual, see @ref{How to read the manual}.}

In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}.
@w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} is valid input; @w{@code{@{ C D E @}}} will
produce an error message.

@smallspace

@subheading Entering music and viewing output

@cindex PDF file
@cindex viewing music
@cindex text editors
@cindex running LilyPond under MacOS X
@cindex MacOS X, running LilyPond
@cindex running LilyPond under Windows
@cindex Windows, running LilyPond
@cindex running LilyPond under Unix
@cindex Unix, running LilyPond

In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to
view or print the output.

Note that there are several other text editors available with
better support for LilyPond.  For more information, see
@rprogram{Text editor support}.

@warning{The first time you ever run LilyPond, it may take a
minute or two because all of the system fonts have to be analyzed
first.  After this, LilyPond will be much faster!}

@subsubheading MacOS X

If you double click @command{LilyPond.app}, it will open with an
example file.  Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your
Desktop, and then process it with the menu command
@w{@code{Compile > Typeset File}}.  The resulting PDF file will be
displayed on your screen.

For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting @q{New}
or @q{Open}.  You must save your file before typesetting it.  If
any errors occur in processing, please see the log window.


@subsubheading Windows

On Windows, if you double-click in the LilyPond icon on the
Desktop, it will open a simple text editor with an example file.
Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop and then
double-click on the file to process it (the file icon looks like a
note).  After some seconds, you will get a file @file{test.pdf} on
your desktop.  Double-click on this PDF file to view the typeset
score.  An alternative method to process the @file{test.ly} file
is to drag and drop it onto the LilyPond icon using your mouse
pointer.

To edit an existing @file{.ly} file, right-click on it and
select @qq{Edit source}.  To get an empty file to start from, run
the editor as described above and use @qq{New} in
the @qq{File} menu, or right-click on the desktop and select
@qq{New..Text Document}, change its name to a name of your choice
and change the file extension to @code{.ly}.  Double-click the
icon to type in your LilyPond source code as before.

Double-clicking the file does not only result in a PDF file, but
also produces a @file{.log} file that contains some information on
what LilyPond has done to the file.  If any errors occur, please
examine this file.

@subsubheading UNIX

Create a text file called @file{test.ly} and enter:

@example
@{
  c' e' g' e'
@}
@end example

To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows:

@example
lilypond test.ly
@end example

@noindent
You will see something resembling:

@example
lilypond test.ly
GNU LilyPond @version{}
Processing `test.ly'
Parsing...
Interpreting music...
Preprocessing graphical objects...
Finding the ideal number of pages...
Fitting music on 1 page...
Drawing systems...
Layout output to `test.ps'...
Converting to `test.pdf'...
@end example


@node Simple notation
@subsection Simple notation

@cindex simple notation
@cindex notation, simple

LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically.  In the
next example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond
has added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
{
  c' e' g' e'
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic
values are useful.


@subheading Pitches

@cindex pitches
@cindex relative mode
@cindex quote, single
@cindex comma
@cindex accidentals and relative mode
@cindex relative mode, and accidentals

@funindex \relative
@funindex relative
@funindex '
@funindex ,

Music Glossary: @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{interval},
@rglos{scale}, @rglos{middle C}, @rglos{octave},
@rglos{accidental}.

The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.
In this mode, the octave is chosen automatically by assuming the
following note is always to be placed closest to the previous
note, i.e., it is to be placed in the octave which is within three
staff spaces of the previous note.  We begin by entering the most
elementary piece of music, a @notation{scale}, in which every note
is within just one staff space of the previous note.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
% set the starting point to middle C
\relative c' {
  c d e f
  g a b c
}
@end lilypond

The initial note is @notation{middle C}.  Each successive note is
placed closest to the previous note -- in other words, the first
@code{c} is the closest C to middle C.  This is followed by the
closest D to the previous note.  We can create melodies which have
larger intervals, still using only @code{\relative} mode:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c' {
  d f a g
  c b f d
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
It is not necessary for the first note of the melody to start on
the note which specifies the starting pitch.  In the previous
example, the first note -- the @code{d} -- is the closest D to
middle C.

By adding (or removing) quotes @code{'} or commas @code{,} from
the @code{@w{\relative c' @{}} command, we can change the starting
octave:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
% one octave above middle C
\relative c'' {
  e c a c
}
@end lilypond

Relative mode can be confusing initially, but is the easiest way
to enter most melodies.  Let us see how this relative calculation
works in practice.  Starting from a B, which is on the middle line
in a treble clef, you can reach a C, D and E within 3 staff spaces
going up, and an A, G and F within 3 staff spaces going down.  So
if the note following a B is a C, D or E it will be assumed to be
above the B, and an A, G or F will be assumed to be below.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  b c  % c is 1 staff space up, so is the c above
  b d  % d is 2 up or 5 down, so is the d above
  b e  % e is 3 up or 4 down, so is the e above
  b a  % a is 6 up or 1 down, so is the a below
  b g  % g is 5 up or 2 down, so is the g below
  b f  % f is 4 up or 3 down, so is the f below
}
@end lilypond

Exactly the same happens even when any of these notes are
sharpened or flattened.  @notation{Accidentals} are
@strong{totally ignored} in the calculation of relative position.
Precisely the same staff space counting is done from a note at any
other position on the staff.

To add intervals that are larger than three staff spaces, we can
raise the @notation{octave} by adding a single quote @code{'} (or
apostrophe) to the note name.  We can lower the octave by adding a
comma @code{,} to the note name.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  a a, c' f,
  g g'' a,, f'
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple
@code{''} or @code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single
quotes @code{''} and not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}!  The
initial value in @code{@w{\relative c'}} may also be modified like
this.
@c " - keeps quotes in order for context-sensitive editor -td

@subheading Durations (rhythms)

@cindex note durations
@cindex durations
@cindex rhythms
@cindex whole note
@cindex half note
@cindex quarter note
@cindex dotted note
@cindex notating durations

Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}, @rglos{duration},
@rglos{whole note}, @rglos{half note}, @rglos{quarter note},
@rglos{dotted note}.

The @notation{duration} of a note is specified by a number after
the note name.  @code{1} for a @notation{whole note}, @code{2} for
a @notation{half note}, @code{4} for a @notation{quarter note} and
so on.  @notation{Beams} are added automatically.

If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
for the next note.  The duration of the first note defaults to a
quarter.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  a1
  a2 a4 a8 a
  a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
}
@end lilypond

To create @notation{dotted notes}, add a dot @code{.} to the
duration number.  The duration of a dotted note must be stated
explicitly (i.e., with a number).

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  a a a4. a8
  a8. a16 a a8. a8 a4.
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Rests

@cindex rest
@cindex notating rests

Music Glossary: @rglos{rest}.

A @notation{rest} is entered just like a note with the name
@code{r}@tie{}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  a r r2
  r8 a r4 r4. r8
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Time signature

@cindex time signature

@funindex \time
@funindex time

Music Glossary: @rglos{time signature}.

The @notation{time signature} can be set with the @code{\time}
command:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  \time 3/4
  a4 a a
  \time 6/8
  a4. a
  \time 4/4
  a4 a a a
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Clef

@cindex clef
@cindex treble
@cindex alto
@cindex tenor
@cindex bass

@funindex \clef
@funindex clef

Music Glossary: @rglos{clef}.

The @notation{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c' {
  \clef treble
  c1
  \clef alto
  c1
  \clef tenor
  c1
  \clef bass
  c1
}
@end lilypond


@subheading All together

Here is a small example showing all these elements together:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c, {
  \time 3/4
  \clef bass
  c2 e8 c' g'2.
  f4 e d c4 c, r4
}
@end lilypond


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Writing pitches},
@ruser{Writing rhythms}, @ruser{Writing rests},
@ruser{Time signature}, @ruser{Clef}.


@node Working on input files
@subsection Working on input files

@cindex curly braces
@cindex braces, curly
@cindex comments
@cindex line comment
@cindex comment, line
@cindex block comment
@cindex comment, line
@cindex case sensitive
@cindex whitespace insensitive
@cindex expressions

@funindex { ... }
@funindex %
@funindex %@{ ... %@}

LilyPond input files are similar to source files in many common
programming languages.  They are case sensitive, and white-space
is generally ignored.  Expressions are formed with curly braces
@{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or
@w{@code{%@{ ... %@}}}.

If the previous sentences sound like nonsense, don't worry!  We'll
explain what all these terms mean:

@itemize

@item
@strong{Case sensitive}:
it matters whether you enter a letter in lower case (e.g.
@w{@code{a, b, s, t}}) or upper case (e.g.  @w{@code{A, B, S, T}}).
Notes are lower case: @w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} is valid input;
@w{@code{@{ C D E @}}} will produce an error message.

@item
@strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
it does not matter how many spaces (or new lines) you add.
@w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} means the same thing as
@w{@code{@{ c @tie{}} @tie{} @tie{} d e @}} and:

@example
@{ c                        d
                   e   @}
@end example

@noindent
Of course, the previous example is hard to read.  A good rule of
thumb is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:

@example
@{
  c d e
@}
@end example

@item
@strong{Expressions}:
every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
braces @}} placed around the input.  These braces tell LilyPond
that the input is a single music expression, just like parentheses
@code{()} in mathematics.  The braces should be surrounded by a
space unless they are at the beginning or end of a line to avoid
ambiguities.

A LilyPond command followed by a simple expression in braces (such
as @w{@code{\relative @{ @}}}) also counts as a single music
expression.

@cindex comments
@cindex line comment
@cindex block comment
@item
@strong{Comments}:
a comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it
is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed
output.  There are two types of comments.  The percent symbol
@code{%} introduces a line comment; anything after @code{%} on
that line is ignored.  By convention, a line comment is placed
@emph{above} the code it refers to.

@example
a4 a a a
% this comment refers to the Bs
b2 b
@end example

A block comment marks a whole section of music input as a comment.
Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}} is ignored.
However, block comments do not @q{nest}.  This means that you
cannot place a block comment inside another block comment.  If you
try, the first @code{%@}} will terminate @emph{both} block
comments.  The following fragment shows possible uses for
comments:

@example
% notes for twinkle twinkle follow
  c4 c g' g a a g2

%@{
  This line, and the notes below are ignored,
  since they are in a block comment.

  f f e e d d c2
%@}
@end example

@end itemize


@node How to read the manual
@subsection How to read the manual

@cindex how to read the manual
@cindex manual, reading
@cindex reading the manual
@cindex examples, clickable
@cindex clickable examples
@cindex tips for constructing files
@cindex templates
@cindex constructing files, tips
@cindex files, tips for constructing

LilyPond input must be surrounded by @{ @} marks or a
@code{@w{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}}, as we saw in @ref{Working on
input files}.  For the rest of this manual, most examples will
omit this.  To replicate the examples, you may copy and paste the
displayed input, but you @strong{must} add the
@code{@w{\relative c'' @{ @}}} like this:

@example
\relative c'' @{
  ... example goes here...
@}
@end example

Why omit the braces?  Most examples in this manual can be inserted
into the middle of a longer piece of music.  For these examples,
it does not make sense to add @code{@w{\relative c'' @{ @}}} --
you should not place a @code{\relative} inside another
@code{\relative}!  If we included @code{@w{\relative c'' @{ @}}}
around every example, you would not be able to copy a small
documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece of your
own.  Most people want to add material to an existing piece, so we
format the manual this way.


@subheading Clickable examples

Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
program.  This is also possible with LilyPond.  If you click on a
picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
LilyPond input that was used to generate that image.  Try it on
this image:

@c no verbatim here
@lilypond[quote]
\relative c'' {
  c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here.  } }
}
@end lilypond

By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section,
you have a starting template for experiments.  To see exactly the
same output (line-width and all), copy everything from @qq{Start
cut-&-pastable section} to the bottom of the file.


@seealso
There are more tips for constructing input files in
@ref{Suggestions for writing LilyPond input files}.  But it might be
best to read through the rest of the tutorial first.


@node Single staff notation
@section Single staff notation

This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
on one staff.

@menu
* Accidentals and key signatures::
* Ties and slurs::
* Articulation and dynamics::
* Adding text::
* Automatic and manual beams::
* Advanced rhythmic commands::
@end menu


@node Accidentals and key signatures
@subsection Accidentals and key signatures

@subheading Accidentals

@cindex accidentals
@cindex accidentals and key signatures
@cindex sharp
@cindex double sharp
@cindex sharp, double
@cindex flat
@cindex double flat
@cindex flat, double

@funindex es
@funindex is
@funindex eses
@funindex isis

Music Glossary: @rglos{sharp}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{double sharp},
@rglos{double flat}, @rglos{accidental}.

A @notation{sharp} pitch is made by adding @code{is} to the name,
and a @notation{flat} pitch by adding @code{es}.  As you might
expect, a @notation{double sharp} or @notation{double flat} is
made by adding @code{isis} or @code{eses}.  This syntax is derived
from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
like German and Dutch.  To use other names for
@notation{accidentals}, see @ruser{Note names in other languages}.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
cis1 ees fisis, aeses
@end lilypond

@cindex key signature, setting
@subheading Key signatures

@cindex key signature
@cindex major
@cindex minor
@cindex accidentals and key signature
@cindex content vs. layout
@cindex layout vs. content

@funindex \key
@funindex key
@funindex \major
@funindex major
@funindex \minor
@funindex minor

Music Glossary: @rglos{key signature}, @rglos{major},
@rglos{minor}.

The @notation{key signature} is set with the command @code{\key}
followed by a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
\key d \major
a1
\key c \minor
a
@end lilypond

@smallspace

@subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches

Music Glossary: @rglos{accidental}, @rglos{key signature},
@rglos{pitch}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{natural}, @rglos{sharp},
@rglos{transposition}.

To determine whether to print an @notation{accidental}, LilyPond
examines the pitches and the @notation{key signature}.  The key
signature only affects the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the
note's @notation{pitch}!  This is a feature that often causes
confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.

LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
layout.  The alteration (@notation{flat}, @notation{natural sign} or
@notation{sharp}) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore
musical content.  Whether an accidental (a @emph{printed} flat,
natural or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding
note is a question of layout.  Layout is something that follows
rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to those
rules.  The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to
hear.

In this example:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
\key d \major
d cis fis
@end lilypond

@noindent
No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add
@code{is} and type @code{cis} and @code{fis} in the input file.

The code @code{b} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just on
the middle line of the staff.}  Rather, it means @qq{there is a
note with pitch B-natural.}  In the key of A-flat major, it
@emph{does} get an accidental:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
\key aes \major
b
@end lilypond

Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
effort when typing, but the advantage is that
@notation{transposing} is easier, and accidentals can be printed
according to different conventions.  For some examples how
accidentals can be printed according to different rules, see
@ruser{Automatic accidentals}.


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Note names in other languages},
@ruser{Accidentals}, @ruser{Automatic accidentals},
@ruser{Key signature}.

Music Glossary: @rglos{Pitch names}.


@node Ties and slurs
@subsection Ties and slurs

@cindex tie
@cindex slur
@cindex slur, phrasing
@cindex phrasing slur

@funindex ~
@funindex ( ... )
@funindex \( ... \)

@subheading Ties


Music Glossary: @rglos{tie}.

A @notation{tie} is created by appending a tilde @code{~} to the
first note being tied.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
g4~ g c2~
c4 ~ c8 a8 ~ a2
@end lilypond

@subheading Slurs


Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}.

A @notation{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes.  The
starting note and ending note are marked with @code{(} and
@code{)} respectively.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
@end lilypond

@subheading Phrasing slurs

Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}, @rglos{phrasing}.

Slurs to indicate longer @notation{phrasing} can be entered with
@code{\(} and @code{\)}.  You can have both @notation{slurs}
and phrasing slurs at the same time, but you cannot have
simultaneous slurs or simultaneous phrasing slurs.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
@end lilypond

@smallspace

@cindex slurs versus ties
@subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties

Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}, @rglos{slur}, @rglos{tie}.

A @notation{slur} looks like a @notation{tie}, but it has a
different meaning.  A tie simply makes the first note longer, and
can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch.  Slurs
indicate the @notation{articulation} of notes, and can be used on
larger groups of notes.  Slurs and ties can be nested.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
@end lilypond


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Ties}, @ruser{Slurs},
@ruser{Phrasing slurs}.


@node Articulation and dynamics
@subsection Articulation and dynamics


@subheading Articulations

@cindex articulation
@cindex accent
@cindex staccato

Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}.

Common @notation{articulations} can be added to a note using a
dash @code{-} and a single character:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
@end lilypond

@subheading Fingerings

@cindex fingering

@funindex ^
@funindex _

Music Glossary: @rglos{fingering}.

Similarly, @notation{fingering} indications can be added to a note
using a dash (@code{-}) and the digit to be printed:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c-3 e-5 b-2 a-1
@end lilypond

Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
you can specify a direction by replacing the dash (@code{-}) with
@code{^} (up) or @code{_} (down).  You can also use multiple
articulations on the same note.  However, in most cases it is best
to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
@end lilypond

@subheading Dynamics

@cindex dynamics
@cindex decrescendo
@cindex crescendo

@funindex \f
@funindex \ff
@funindex \mp
@funindex \p
@funindex \mf
@funindex \pp
@funindex \<
@funindex <
@funindex \>
@funindex >
@funindex \!
@funindex !

Music Glossary: @rglos{dynamics}, @rglos{crescendo},
@rglos{decrescendo}.

@notation{Dynamic} signs are made by adding the markings (with a
backslash) to the note:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c\ff c\mf c\p c\pp
@end lilypond


@notation{Crescendi} and @notation{decrescendi} are started with
the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}.  The next dynamics sign, for
example @code{\f}, will end the (de)crescendo, or the command
@code{\!} can be used:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c2\< c2\ff\> c2 c2\!
@end lilypond


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Articulations and ornamentations},
@ruser{Fingering instructions}, @ruser{Dynamics}.


@node Adding text
@subsection Adding text

@cindex text, adding
@cindex adding text
@cindex markup

@funindex \markup
@funindex markup

Text may be added to your scores:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c1^"espr" a_"legato"
@end lilypond

Extra formatting may be added with the @code{\markup} command:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c1^\markup{ \bold espr}
a1_\markup{
  \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
}
@end lilypond


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Writing text}.


@node Automatic and manual beams
@subsection Automatic and manual beams

@cindex beaming
@cindex automatic beams
@cindex manual beams
@cindex beams, automatic
@cindex beams, manual
@cindex beams, by hand

@funindex [ ... ]
@funindex [
@funindex ]
@funindex \autoBeamOff
@funindex autoBeamOff
@funindex \autoBeamOn
@funindex autoBeamOn

Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}.

All @notation{beams} are drawn automatically:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
@end lilypond

If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
manually.  To correct just an occasional beam mark the first note
to be beamed with @code{[} and the last one with @code{]}.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
@end lilypond

If you want to turn off automatic beaming entirely or for an
extended section of music, use the command @code{\autoBeamOff}
to turn off automatic beaming and @code{\autoBeamOn} to turn it
on again.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
\autoBeamOff
a8 c b4 d8. c16 b4
\autoBeamOn
a8 c b4 d8. c16 b4
@end lilypond


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Automatic beams}, @ruser{Manual beams}.


@node Advanced rhythmic commands
@subsection Advanced rhythmic commands

@subheading Partial measure

@cindex pickup
@cindex anacrusis
@cindex partial measure

@funindex \partial
@funindex partial

Music Glossary: @rglos{anacrusis}.

A pickup (or @notation{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
@code{\partial}.  It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
\partial 8
f8 c2 d
@end lilypond

@subheading Tuplets

@cindex tuplets
@cindex triplets

@funindex \times
@funindex times

Music Glossary: @rglos{note value}, @rglos{triplet}.

@notation{Tuplets} are made with the @code{\times} keyword.  It
takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music.  The
duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction.
Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a
@notation{triplet} has 2/3 as its fraction

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
\times 2/3 { f8 g a }
\times 2/3 { c r c }
\times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
\times 2/3 { d4 a8 }
@end lilypond

@subheading Grace notes

@cindex grace notes
@cindex acciaccatura
@cindex appoggiatura

@funindex \grace
@funindex grace
@funindex \acciaccatura
@funindex acciaccatura
@funindex \appoggiatura
@funindex acciaccatura

Music Glossary: @rglos{grace notes}, @rglos{acciaccatura},
@rglos{appoggiatura}.

@notation{Grace notes} are created with the @code{\grace} command,
although they can also be created by prefixing a music expression
with the keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
@end lilypond


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Grace notes}, @ruser{Tuplets},
@ruser{Upbeats}.


@node Multiple notes at once
@section Multiple notes at once

This section introduces having more than one note at the same
time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.

Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
in a piece of music.  Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
than one voice on the same staff.

@menu
* Music expressions explained::
* Multiple staves::
* Staff groups::
* Combining notes into chords::
* Single staff polyphony::
@end menu


@node Music expressions explained
@subsection Music expressions explained

@cindex music expression
@cindex expression, music
@cindex compound music expression
@cindex music expression, compound

In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
expressions}.  A single note is a music expression:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
a4
@end lilypond

Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
expression}.  Here we have created a compound music expression
with two notes:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
{ a4 g4 }
@end lilypond

Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
one).  The result is another music expression:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
{ { a4 g } f g }
@end lilypond

@subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions

This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
is created by composing small formulas.  Such formulas are called
expressions, and they can contain other expressions, so you can
make arbitrarily complex and large expressions.  For example,

@example
1

1 + 2

(1 + 2) * 3

((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
@end example

This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
contained in the next (larger) one.  The simplest expressions are
numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
operators (like @code{+}, @code{*} and @code{/}) and parentheses.
Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
polyphonic scores.


@subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves

@cindex multiple staves
@cindex staves, multiple
@cindex polyphony
@cindex combining expressions in parallel
@cindex parallel expressions
@cindex expressions, parallel
@cindex relative notes and simultaneous music
@cindex relative notes and parallel expressions
@cindex simultaneous music and relative notes
@cindex parallel expressions and relative notes

@funindex <<
@funindex >>
@funindex << ... >>

Music Glossary: @rglos{polyphony}.

This technique is useful for @notation{polyphonic} music.  To
enter music with more voices or more staves, we combine
expressions in parallel.  To indicate that two voices should play
at the same time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
expressions.  A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}.  In the
following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
notes) are combined simultaneously:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    { a4 g }
    { f e }
    { d b }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
different amount of space.  LilyPond does not care how much (or
little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.

@warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
@code{@bs{}relative} command.}


@subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff

To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
the beginning of the first expression.  If is a single note, there
is one staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more
than one staff.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  c2 <<c e>>
  << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
}
@end lilypond

@node Multiple staves
@subsection Multiple staves

@cindex multiple staves
@cindex staves, multiple
@cindex context
@cindex context, notation
@cindex notation context

@funindex \new Staff
@funindex new Staff
@funindex Staff
@funindex \new
@funindex new
@funindex Score
@funindex Voice
@funindex Lyrics
@funindex ChordNames

LilyPond input files are constructed out of music expressions, as
we saw in @ref{Music expressions explained}.  If the score begins
with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates multiples
staves.  However, it is easier to see what happens if we create
each staff explicitly.

To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it.  These
@code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
and @code{>>}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    \new Staff { \clef treble c }
    \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.}  A
notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted.  For simple
pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically.  For
more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.

There are several types of contexts.  @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.

In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
creates a bigger music expression.  In this way it resembles the
minus sign in mathematics.  The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.

Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other staves by
default.  On the other hand, the key signature of one staff does
@emph{not} affect other staves.  This different default behavior
is because scores with transposing instruments are more common
than polyrhythmic scores.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    \new Staff { \clef treble \key d \major \time 3/4 c }
    \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
  >>
}
@end lilypond




@node Staff groups
@subsection Staff groups

@cindex piano staff
@cindex staff, piano
@cindex choir staff
@cindex staff, choir
@cindex grand staff
@cindex staff, grand
@cindex staff group

@funindex PianoStaff
@funindex GrandStaff
@funindex ChoirStaff

Music Glossary: @rglos{brace}.

Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a
@notation{brace}.
Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
@ref{Multiple staves}.  However, now this entire expression is
inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:

@example
\new PianoStaff <<
  \new Staff @dots{}
  \new Staff @dots{}
>>
@end example

Here is a small example:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  \new PianoStaff <<
    \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
    \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

Other staff groupings are introduced with @code{\new GrandStaff},
suitable for orchestral scores, and @w{@code{\new ChoirStaff}},
suitable for vocal scores.  These staff groups each form another
type of context, one that generates the brace at the left end of
every system and also controls the extent of bar lines.


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Keyboard and other multi-staff
instruments},
@ruser{Displaying staves}.


@node Combining notes into chords
@subsection Combining notes into chords

@cindex chords
@cindex note durations in chords

@funindex <
@funindex >
@funindex < ... >

Music Glossary: @rglos{chord}.

We saw earlier how notes can be combined into @notation{chords} by
indicating they are simultaneous by enclosing them in double angle
brackets.  However, the normal way of indicating a chord is to
surround the pitches with @emph{single} angle brackets.  Note that
all the notes in a chord must have the same duration, and that the
duration is placed after the closing bracket.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
@end lilypond

Think of chords as almost equivalent to single notes:
almost everything you can attach to a single note can be attached
to a chord, and everything must go @emph{outside} the angle
brackets.  For example, you can combine markings like beams and
ties with chords.  They must be placed outside the angle brackets.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
r4 <c e g>8( <c e g>\> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
@end lilypond


@node Single staff polyphony
@subsection Single staff polyphony

@cindex polyphony
@cindex multiple voices
@cindex voices, more on one staff
@cindex single staff polyphony
@cindex spacer rest
@cindex rest, spacer

@funindex << ... \\ ... >>
@funindex <<
@funindex \\
@funindex >>

Polyphonic music in lilypond, while not difficult, uses concepts
that we haven't discussed yet, so we're not going to introduce
them here. Instead, the following sections introduce these concepts
and explain them thoroughly.

@seealso
Learning Manual: @ref{Voices contain music}.

Notation Reference: @ruser{Simultaneous notes}.

@node Songs
@section Songs

This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.

@menu
* Setting simple songs::
* Aligning lyrics to a melody::
* Lyrics to multiple staves::
@end menu


@node Setting simple songs
@subsection Setting simple songs

@cindex lyrics
@cindex songs

@funindex \addlyrics
@funindex addlyrics

Music Glossary: @rglos{lyrics}.

Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
rhyme, @notation{Girls and boys come out to play}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  \key g \major
  \time 6/8
  d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
}
@end lilypond

The @notation{lyrics} can be set to these notes, combining both
with the @code{\addlyrics} keyword.  Lyrics are entered by
separating each syllable with a space.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    \key g \major
    \time 6/8
    d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Girls and boys come out to play,
  }
>>
@end lilypond

Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics,
and the double angle brackets @w{@code{<< ... >>}} around the
whole piece to show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the
same time.

@node Aligning lyrics to a melody
@subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody

@cindex melisma
@cindex extender line
@cindex hyphens
@cindex underscore
@cindex lyrics, aligning
@cindex aligning lyrics
@cindex lyrics, multi-syllable words
@cindex words with multiple syllables in lyrics

Music Glossary: @rglos{melisma}, @rglos{extender line}.

The next line in the nursery rhyme is @notation{The moon doth
shine as bright as day}.  Let's extend it:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    \key g \major
    \time 6/8
    d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
    g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Girls and boys come out to play,
    The moon doth shine as bright as day;
  }
>>
@end lilypond

We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes.  The
word @notation{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one.  This
is called a @notation{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more
than one note.  There are several ways to spread a syllable over
multiple notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them, for
details, see @ref{Ties and slurs}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    \key g \major
    \time 6/8
    d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
    g8 a4 b8 c( b) a d4 b8 g4.
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Girls and boys come out to play,
    The moon doth shine as bright as day;
  }
>>
@end lilypond

The words now line up correctly with the notes, but the automatic
beaming for the notes above @notation{shine as} does not look right.
We can correct this by inserting manual beaming commands to override
the automatic beaming here, for details, see @ref{Automatic and
manual beams}.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    \key g \major
    \time 6/8
    d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
    g8 a4 b8 c([ b]) a d4 b8 g4.
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Girls and boys come out to play,
    The moon doth shine as bright as day;
  }
>>
@end lilypond

As an alternative to using slurs, the melismata may be indicated
in just the lyrics by using an underscore @code{_} for each note
that should be included in the melisma:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    \key g \major
    \time 6/8
    d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
    g8 a4 b8 c[ b] a d4 b8 g4.
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Girls and boys come out to play,
    The moon doth shine _ as bright as day;
  }
>>
@end lilypond

If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
note an @notation{extender line} is usually drawn from the
syllable extending under all the notes for that syllable.  It is
entered as two underscores @code{__}.  Here is an example from the
first three bars of @notation{Dido's Lament}, from Purcell's
@notation{Dido and Æneas}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    \key g \minor
    \time 3/2
    g2 a bes bes( a)
    b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
  }
  \addlyrics {
    When I am laid,
    am laid __ in earth,
  }
>>
@end lilypond

None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
than one syllable.  Such words are usually split one syllable to a
note, with hyphens between syllables.  Such hyphens are entered as
two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
far about aligning lyrics to notes.

@c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
@c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
@lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
<<
  \relative c' {
    \key g \major
    \time 3/4
    \partial 4
    d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
    b8( c) d4 d e4 c2
  }
  \addlyrics {
    A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
    no __ crib for a bed, __
  }
>>
@end lilypond

Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
setting more than one syllable to a single note.  This is
achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in quotes.
Here's an example from Rossini's @notation{Figaro}, where
@notation{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @notation{go} of
@notation{Largo} in Figaro's aria @notation{Largo al factotum}:

@c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
@c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
@lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
<<
  \relative c' {
    \clef bass
    \key c \major
    \time 6/8
    c4.~ c8 d b c([ d]) b c d b c
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tà
  }
>>
@end lilypond


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.


@node Lyrics to multiple staves
@subsection Lyrics to multiple staves

@cindex lyrics and multiple staves
@cindex multiple staves and lyrics

The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
placing lyrics under more than one staff.  Here is an
example from Handel's @notation{Judas Maccabæus}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    \key f \major
    \time 6/8
    \partial 8
    c8 c([ bes]) a a([ g]) f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
  }
  \relative c' {
    \key f \major
    \time 6/8
    \partial 8
    r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g]) f f([ e]) d e([ d]) c bes'4
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
  }
>>
@end lilypond

Scores any more complex than this simple example are better
produced by separating out the score structure from the notes and
lyrics with variables.  These are discussed in @ref{Organizing
pieces with variables}.


@seealso
Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.


@node Final touches
@section Final touches

This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
introduction to the rest of the manual.

@menu
* Organizing pieces with variables::
* Version number::
* Adding titles::
* Absolute note names::
* After the tutorial::
@end menu


@node Organizing pieces with variables
@subsection Organizing pieces with variables

@cindex variables
@cindex variables, defining
@cindex identifiers
@cindex macros
@cindex assigning variables
@cindex using variables
@cindex variables, using
@cindex variables, characters allowed in
@cindex characters allowed in variables

When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger.  In
polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
confusing.  We can reduce this confusion by using
@emph{variables}.

With variables (also known as identifiers or macros), we can break
up complex music expressions.  A variable is assigned as
follows:

@example
namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
@end example

The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
later by placing a backslash in front of the name
(@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
violin = \new Staff {
  \relative c'' {
    a4 b c b
  }
}
cello = \new Staff {
  \relative c {
    \clef bass
    e2 d
  }
}
{
  <<
    \violin
    \cello
  >>
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
The name of a variable must have alphabetic characters only, no
numbers, underscores, or dashes.

Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
expression, but may be used as many times as required anywhere after
they have been defined.  They may even be used in a later definition
of another variable, giving a way of shortening the input if a
section of music is repeated many times.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
tripletA = \times 2/3 { c,8 e g }
barA = { \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA }

\relative c'' {
 \barA \barA
}
@end lilypond

Variables may be used for many other types of objects in
the input.  For example,

@example
width = 4.5\cm
name = "Wendy"
aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
@end example

Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
places.  The following example uses the above variables:

@example
\paper @{
  \aFivePaper
  line-width = \width
@}
@{
  c4^\name
@}
@end example


@node Version number
@subsection Version number

@cindex versioning
@cindex version
@cindex version number
@cindex upgrades
@cindex future upgrades
@cindex updating files
@cindex files, updating

@funindex \version
@funindex version
@funindex convert-ly

The @code{\version} statement records the version of LilyPond that
was used to write the file:

@example
\version @w{"@version{}"}
@end example

@noindent
By convention, this is placed at the top of your LilyPond file.

These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
smoothly.  Changes in the syntax are handled with a special
program, @command{convert-ly}, and it uses @code{\version} to
determine what rules to apply.  For details, see
@rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}.


@node Adding titles
@subsection Adding titles

@cindex title
@cindex headers
@cindex header block

@funindex \header
@funindex header

The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
entered in the @code{\header} block.  This exists outside of the
main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
underneath the version number.

@example
\version @w{"@version{}"}
\header @{
  title = "Symphony"
  composer = "Me"
  opus = "Op. 9"
@}

@{
  @dots{} music @dots{}
@}
@end example

When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
above the music.  More information on titling can be found in
@ruser{Creating titles}.


@node Absolute note names
@subsection Absolute note names

@cindex note names
@cindex note names, absolute
@cindex absolute mode
@cindex absolute values for pitches
@cindex pitches, absolute values
@cindex absolute note names

So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
defining pitches exists: absolute mode.

If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
absolute values.  A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
@code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
@code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
bass clef.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
{
  \clef bass
  c' b g, g,
  g, f, f c'
}
@end lilypond

Here is a four-octave scale:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
{
  \clef bass
  c, d, e, f,
  g, a, b, c
  d e f g
  a b c' d'
  \clef treble
  e' f' g' a'
  b' c'' d'' e''
  f'' g'' a'' b''
  c'''1
}
@end lilypond

As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
of quote @code{'} marks.  Consider this fragment from Mozart:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
{
  \key a \major
  \time 6/8
  cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
  b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
}
@end lilypond

All these quotes makes the input less readable and they are a source
of errors.  With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
easier to read and type:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote]
\relative c'' {
  \key a \major
  \time 6/8
  cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
  b8. cis16 b8 d4 d8
}
@end lilypond

If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
notes will be in the wrong octave.  When working in absolute mode,
a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
to find.

However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
files.



@node After the tutorial
@subsection After the tutorial

After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
piece or two.  Start by adding notes to one of the
@ref{Templates}.  If you need any notation that was not covered in
the tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
@ruser{Musical notation}.  If you want to write for an instrument
ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
@ref{Extending the templates}.

Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
Learning Manual (chapters 3-5).  There's nothing wrong with
reading it now, of course!  However, the rest of the Learning
Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input.  You may
wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
you have more experience.

In this tutorial and in the rest of the Learning Manual, there is a
paragraph @strong{See also} at the end of each section, which contains
cross-references to other sections: you should not follow these
cross-references at first reading; when you have read all of the
Learning Manual, you may want to read some sections again and follow
cross-references for further reading.

If you have not done so already, @emph{please} read @ref{About the
documentation}.  There is a lot of information about LilyPond, so
newcomers often do not know where they should look for help.  If
you spend five minutes reading that section carefully, you might
save yourself hours of frustration looking in the wrong places!