1 @c -*- coding: latin-1; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
5 @c * more details about running lilypond; error messages,
6 @c compiling/viewing (emacs?)
7 @c * where to go from First steps+More basics?
9 @c wherever possible, do not include index entries here; the
10 @c index should point to stuff in the reference manual. -gp
12 @c Your first LilyPond score in 10 minutes?
17 This tutorial starts with a short introduction to the LilyPond music
18 language. After this first contact we will show you how to produce
19 printed output. Then you will be able to create and print your own
23 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
24 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
25 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
26 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image.
29 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,relative=2]
30 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
34 By cutting and pasting the full input into a test file, you have a
35 starting template for experiments. If you like learning in this way,
36 you will probably want to print out or bookmark
40 @ref{Cheat sheet}, which is a table listing all commands for quick
45 * Running LilyPond for the first time::
46 * More about pitches::
48 * Automatic and manual beams::
50 * Music expressions explained::
52 * Adding articulation marks to notes::
53 * Combining notes into chords::
54 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
55 * Commenting input files::
59 * Single staff polyphony::
61 * Organizing larger pieces::
62 * An orchestral part::
69 The first example demonstrates how to enter the most elementary piece
70 of music, a @rglos{scale}. A @rglos{note} can be entered by typing its
71 name, from @samp{a} through @samp{g}. So, if you enter
78 the result looks like this
80 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=1]
84 The @rglos{duration} of a note is specified by a number after the note
85 name. @samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a @rglos{half note},
86 @samp{4} for a @rglos{quarter note} and so on
92 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=2]
93 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
94 { a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 s16_" " }
97 If you do not specify a duration, the duration last entered is used
98 for the next notes. The duration of the first note in input defaults
105 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=2]
106 { a a8 a a2 a s16_" " }
110 A @rglos{rest} is entered just like a note, but with the name @samp{r}
116 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
120 Add a dot @samp{.} after the duration to get a @rglos{dotted note}
126 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=1]
127 { a2. a4 a8. a16 s16_" " }
130 The (or @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the @code{\time}
139 @c A clef here may lead to confusion, remove it.
140 @lilypond[fragment,quote]
141 \override Staff.Clef #'transparent = ##t
150 The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command
159 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
171 Remember to enclose the notes and commands in curly braces
172 @code{@{@tie{}@dots{}@tie{}@}} to convert it to printable output.
174 @lilypond[fragment,quote,noindent,linewidth=55\staffspace]
181 For more elaborate information on
185 @item Entering pitches and durations
187 @ref{Pitches}, and @ref{Durations}.
192 @item Time signatures and other timing commands
193 see @ref{Time signature}.
198 @node Running LilyPond for the first time
199 @section Running LilyPond for the first time
201 @c cheesy title to avoid clash with chapter name.
203 In the last section we explained what kind of things you can enter
204 in a LilyPond file. In this section we will explain what commands to
205 run and how to view or print the output. If you have not used
206 LilyPond before, want to test your setup, or want to run an example
207 file yourself, read this section. The instructions that follow are
208 for Unix-like systems. Some additional instructions for Microsoft
209 Windows are given at the end of this section.
211 Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor. For
212 example, you could open an xterm and execute
213 @code{joe}.@footnote{There are macro files for VIM addicts, and there
214 is a @code{LilyPond-mode} for Emacs addicts. If they have not been
215 installed already, refer to
216 the file @file{INSTALL.txt}.} In your text editor, enter the following
217 input and save the file as @file{test.ly}
224 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows
231 You will see something resembling
238 Interpreting music... [1]
239 Preprocessing graphical objects...
240 Calculating line breaks... [2]
241 Layout output to `test.tex'...
242 Converting to `test.dvi'...
243 Converting to `test.ps'...
244 Converting to `test.pdf'...
248 @cindex Viewing music
251 The result is the file @file{test.pdf}@footnote{For @TeX{}
252 aficionados: there is also a @file{test.dvi} file. It can be viewed
253 with @code{xdvi}. The DVI uses a lot of PostScript specials, which do
254 not show up in the magnifying glass. The specials also mean that the
255 DVI file cannot be processed with @code{dvilj}. Use @code{dvips} for
260 } which you can print or view with the standard facilities of your
261 operating system.@footnote{If your system does not have any tools
262 installed, you can try
263 @uref{http://@/www@/.cs@/.wisc@/.edu/@/~ghost/,Ghostscript}, a freely
264 available package for viewing and printing PDF and PostScript files.}
266 On Windows, start up a text-editor@footnote{Any simple or
267 programmer-oriented editor will do, for example Notepad. Do not use a
268 word processor, since these insert formatting codes that will confuse
275 Save it on the desktop as @file{test.ly} and make sure that it is not
276 called @file{test.ly.TXT}. Double clicking @file{test.ly} will process
277 the file and show the resulting PDF file.
280 @node More about pitches
281 @section More about pitches
283 A @rglos{sharp} (@texisharp{}) pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to
284 the name, a @rglos{flat} (@texiflat{}) pitch by adding @samp{es}. As
285 you might expect, a @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is
286 made by adding @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax
287 derived from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
288 like German and Dutch.}
294 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
295 \set Score.timing = ##f
296 \transpose c c' { cis1 ees fisis aeses s16_" " }
299 @cindex key signature, setting
300 The key signature is set with the command @code{\key}, followed by
301 a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}
310 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,fragment]
318 Key signatures together with the pitches (including alterations) are
319 used to determine when to print accidentals. This is a
320 feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it
324 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
325 layout. The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part of
326 the pitch, and is therefore musical content. Whether an accidental (a
327 flat, natural or sharp @emph{sign}) is printed in front of the
328 corresponding note is a question of layout. Layout is something that
329 follows rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to
330 those rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
331 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
335 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment]
341 no note has an explicit accidental, but you still must enter
349 The code @samp{d} does not mean `print a black dot just below the
350 staff.' Rather, it means: `a note with pitch D-natural.' In the key
351 of A-flat major, it does get an accidental
353 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
358 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more effort
359 when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is easier, and
360 accidentals can be printed according to different conventions. See
361 @ref{Automatic accidentals}, for some examples how accidentals can be printed
362 according to different rules.
365 For more information on
370 see @ref{Automatic accidentals}.
373 see @ref{Key signature}.
378 @section Entering ties
381 A @rglos{tie} is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the first
384 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim,relative=3]
388 For more information on Ties see @ref{Ties}.
392 @node Automatic and manual beams
393 @section Automatic and manual beams
395 @cindex beams, by hand
396 All @rglos{beam}s are drawn automatically
398 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
403 If you do not like where beams are put, they can be entered by
404 hand. Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the last one
407 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
411 For more information on beams, see @ref{Manual beams}.
414 Here are key signatures, accidentals and ties in action
416 @lilypond[fragment,quote,noindent,linewidth=50\staffspace,verbatim]
423 fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4 a8 gis~
432 There are some interesting points to note in this example. Bar lines
433 and beams are drawn automatically. Line breaks are calculated
434 automatically; it does not matter where the line breaks are in the
435 source file. Finally, the order in which time, key, and clef changes
436 are entered is not relevant: in the printout, these are ordered
437 according to standard notation conventions.
442 @section Octave entry
445 @c Tim wants to move this quotes example just before the: quotes-do not-work
446 @c score, but we'd need to remove quotes from the other two (key and
449 @c better to have this just before the `octaves are bad' snipped
450 @c but we'd need to remove the ', from \key and tie
451 To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote @code{'} (apostrophe) to
452 the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a `low quote' @code{,}
453 (comma). Middle C is @code{c'}
455 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim]
456 c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
459 An example of the use of quotes is in the following Mozart fragment
461 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
464 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
465 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
469 This example shows that music in a high register needs lots of quotes.
470 This makes the input less readable, and it is a source of errors. The
471 solution is to use `relative octave' mode. This is the
472 most convenient way to copy existing music.
474 In relative mode, a note without octavation quotes (i.e. the @code{'}
475 or @code{,} after a note) is chosen so that it is closest to the
476 previous one. For example, @samp{c f} goes up while @samp{c g} goes
479 To use relative mode, add @code{\relative} before the piece of
480 music. The first note is taken relative to the middle C
481 @c no , for this sentence
486 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim]
493 Since most music has small intervals, pieces can be written almost
494 without octavation quotes in relative mode. The previous example is
497 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
501 cis'8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
506 @c needed better, maybe even redundant explanation
507 @c added another example below.
508 @c grappig: Pa vond het heel logies, en slim toen-i eenmaal begreep.
509 @c in eerste instantie drong het `relative' niet door zonder extra uitleg.
510 Larger intervals are made by adding octavation quotes.
512 @lilypond[quote,notime,verbatim,fragment]
518 In summary, quotes or commas no longer determine the absolute height
519 of a note in @code{\relative} mode. Rather, the height of a note is
520 relative to the previous one, and changing the octave of a single note
521 shifts all following notes an octave up or down.
523 For more information on relative octaves see @ref{Relative octaves},
524 and @ref{Octave check}.
527 @node Music expressions explained
528 @section Music expressions explained
531 In input files, music is represent by so-called @emph{music
532 expression}s. We have already seen some in the previous examples;
533 a single note is a music expression
535 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
539 Enclosing a group of notes in braces creates a new music
542 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
546 Putting a bunch of music expressions (e.g., notes) in braces, means that
547 they should be played in sequence. The result again is a music
548 expression, which can be grouped with other expressions sequentially.
549 Here, the expression from the previous example is combined with two
552 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
556 This technique is useful for non-monophonic music. To enter music
557 with more voices or more staves, we also combine expressions in
558 parallel. Two voices that should play at the same time, are entered
559 as a simultaneous combination of two sequences. A `simultaneous'
560 music expression is formed by enclosing expressions in @code{<<} and
561 @code{>>}. In the following example, three sequences (all containing
562 two separate notes) are combined simultaneously
564 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
572 This mechanism is similar to mathematical
573 formulas: a big formula is created by composing small formulas. Such
574 formulas are called expressions, and their definition is recursive, so
575 you can make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
584 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
588 @cindex music expression
589 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is contained
590 in the next one. The simplest expressions are numbers, and larger
591 ones are made by combining expressions with operators (like @samp{+},
592 @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses. Like mathematical expressions,
593 music expressions can be nested arbitrarily deep, which is necessary
594 for complex music like polyphonic scores.
596 Note that this example only has one staff, whereas
597 the previous example had three separate staves. That is because this
598 example begins with a single note. To determine the number of staves,
599 LilyPond looks at the first element. If it is a single note, there is one
600 staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one staff.
602 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
605 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
609 Music files with deep nesting can be confusing to enter and
610 maintain. One convention that helps against this confusion is
611 indenting. When entering a file with deep nesting of braces and
612 angles, it is customary to use an indent that indicates the nesting
613 level. Formatting music like this eases reading and helps you insert
614 the right number of closing braces at the end of an expression. For
628 Some editors have special support for entering LilyPond, and can help
629 indenting source files. See @ref{Editor support} for more information.
634 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
635 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
636 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<} and
637 @code{>>}, as demonstrated here
639 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
641 \new Staff { \clef treble c'' }
642 \new Staff { \clef bass c }
647 The command @code{\new} introduces a `notation context.' A notation
648 context is an environment in which musical events (like notes or
649 @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple pieces, such
650 notation contexts are created automatically. For more complex pieces, it
651 is best to mark contexts explicitly. This ensures that each fragment
654 There are several types of contexts. @code{Staff}, @code{Voice} and
655 @code{Score} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets lyric
656 texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
658 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
659 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the minus
660 sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an expression, so
661 @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
663 We can now typeset a melody with two staves
665 @c TODO: (c) status of this Paul McCartney (?) song (let's all stand together)
667 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,raggedright]
684 For more information on contexts see the description in
685 @ref{Interpretation contexts}.
689 @node Adding articulation marks to notes
690 @section Adding articulation marks to notes
696 Common accents can be added to a note using a dash (@samp{-}) and a
699 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
700 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
704 Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a dash
705 (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed
707 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
711 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but you
712 can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_} (down). You can
713 also use multiple articulations on the same note. In most cases, however,
714 it is best to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
716 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
717 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
720 Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash) to
723 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
731 Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<} and
732 @code{\>}. An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will finish the
733 (de)crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used
735 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
743 A @rglos{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes, and indicates
744 legato articulation. The starting note and ending note are marked
745 with @samp{(} and @samp{)}, respectively
747 @lilypond[fragment,quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
748 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
751 @cindex slurs versus ties
752 A slur looks like a @rglos{tie}, but it has a different meaning. A
753 tie simply makes the first note sound longer, and can only be used on
754 pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the articulations
755 of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties
758 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2]
759 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
762 @cindex phrasing slurs
763 Slurs to indicate phrasing can be entered with @code{\(} and
764 @code{\)}, so you can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs at the
765 same time. You cannot have simultaneous slurs or simultaneous
768 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
769 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis, c\)
773 For more information on
778 see @ref{Fingering instructions}.
780 see @ref{Articulations}.
784 see @ref{Phrasing slurs}.
791 @node Combining notes into chords
792 @section Combining notes into chords
795 Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with angle brackets.
796 Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.
798 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
803 You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They must
804 be placed outside the angled brackets
806 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
807 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>
811 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>\!)
814 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment]
816 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>\!)
820 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
821 @section Advanced rhythmic commands
825 @cindex partial measure
826 A pickup is entered with the keyword @code{\partial}. It
827 is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4} is a quarter note upstep
828 and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note
830 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
837 Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two
838 arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the piece
839 of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes occupy
840 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its fraction
842 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
843 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
849 Grace notes are also made by prefixing a music expression with the
850 keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}
854 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
855 c4 \appoggiatura b16 c4
856 c4 \acciaccatura b16 c4
861 For more information on
866 see @ref{Grace notes},
870 see @ref{Partial measures}.
875 @node Commenting input files
876 @section Commenting input files
880 @cindex block comment
881 A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it is
882 ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed output.
883 There are two types of comments. The percent symbol @samp{%}
884 introduces a line comment; after @code{%} the rest of the line is
885 ignored. A block comment marks a whole section of music
886 input. Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}} is
887 ignored. The following fragment shows possible uses for comments
890 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
894 This line, and the notes below
895 are ignored, since they are in a
902 @c TODO post-2.6 reorg
903 @c This is good info, but I wouldn't call it a comment. IMO it should
904 @c be moved somewhere else.
908 There is a special statement that is a kind of comment. The @code{\version}
909 statement marks for which version of LilyPond the file was written.
910 To mark a file for version 2.6.0, use
917 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
918 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special program,
919 @file{convert-ly} (see @ref{Updating files with convert-ly}), and it uses
920 @code{\version} to determine what rules to apply.
923 @node Printing lyrics
924 @section Printing lyrics
927 @c TODO: (c) status of the Queen fragment.
931 Lyrics are entered by separating each syllable with a space
939 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
941 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
942 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
946 The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
947 @code{\addlyrics} keyword
949 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
952 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
953 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
955 \addlyrics { I want to break free }
960 @cindex extender line
962 This melody ends on a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable (`free')
963 sung to more than one note. This is indicated with an @emph{extender
964 line}. It is entered as two underscores, i.e.,
967 @{ I want to break free __ @}
970 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright]
973 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
974 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
976 \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
980 Similarly, hyphens between words can be entered as two dashes,
981 resulting in a centered hyphen between two syllables
984 Twin -- kle twin -- kle
987 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright]
993 \addlyrics { Twin -- kle twin -- kle }
997 More options, like putting multiple lines of lyrics below a melody are
998 discussed in @ref{Vocal music}.
1002 @section A lead sheet
1008 @c TODO: revise this, \chords { } is shorter and more intuitive.
1010 In popular music, it is common to denote accompaniment with chord names.
1011 Such chords can be entered like notes,
1013 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
1014 \chordmode { c2 f4. g8 }
1018 Now each pitch is read as the root of a chord instead of a note.
1019 This mode is switched on with @code{\chordmode}
1021 Other chords can be created by adding modifiers after a colon. The
1022 following example shows a few common modifiers
1024 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
1025 \chordmode { c2 f4:m g4:maj7 gis1:dim7 }
1028 For lead sheets, chords are not printed on staves, but as names on a
1029 line for themselves. This is achieved by using @code{\chords} instead
1030 of @code{\chordmode}. This uses the same syntax as @code{\chordmode},
1031 but renders the notes in a @code{ChordNames} context, with the
1034 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
1035 \chords { c2 f4.:m g4.:maj7 gis8:dim7 }
1039 When put together, chord names, lyrics and a melody form
1040 a lead sheet, for example,
1044 \chords @{ @emph{chords} @}
1046 \addlyrics @{ @emph{the text} @}
1051 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1053 \chords { r2 c:sus4 f }
1055 r4 c' \times 2/3 { f g g }
1056 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
1058 \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
1062 A complete list of modifiers and other options for layout can be found
1067 @section Adding titles
1069 Bibliographic information is entered in a separate block, the
1070 @code{\header} block. The name of the piece, its composer, etc., are
1071 entered as an assignment, within @code{\header
1072 @{@tie{}@dots{}@tie{}@}}. The @code{\header} block is usually put at
1073 the top of the file. For example,
1078 composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
1085 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed above
1086 the music. More information on titling can be found in @ref{Creating
1090 @node Single staff polyphony
1091 @section Single staff polyphony
1094 @cindex multiple voices
1095 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1096 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they are
1097 printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems, slurs and
1098 beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the bottom voice has
1101 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence (with
1102 @code{@{...@}}), and combining these simultaneously, separating the
1103 voices with @code{\\}
1105 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1106 << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
1110 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be convenient;
1111 these are rests that do not print. They are useful for filling up
1112 voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the same example with a
1113 spacer rest (@code{s}) instead of a normal rest (@code{r}),
1115 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1116 << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
1121 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily
1123 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1131 { <c, g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1137 More features of polyphonic typesetting are described in this manual
1138 in section @ref{Polyphony}.
1142 @section Piano staves
1144 @cindex staff switch, manual
1145 @cindex cross staff voice, manual
1146 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace. Printing
1147 such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in @ref{More staves},
1150 << \new Staff @{ @dots{} @}
1151 \new Staff @{ @dots{} @} >>
1155 but now this entire expression must be interpreted as a
1159 \new PianoStaff << \new Staff @dots{} >>
1162 Here is a small example
1164 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=1,fragment]
1166 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 c g' g }
1167 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1171 More information on formatting piano music is given in @ref{Piano music}.
1174 @node Organizing larger pieces
1175 @section Organizing larger pieces
1177 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1178 larger files, the @code{\score} blocks get a lot bigger, because the
1179 music expressions are longer, and, in the case of polyphonic pieces,
1180 more deeply nested. Such large expressions can become unwieldy.
1182 By using variables, also known as identifiers, it is possible to break
1183 up complex music expressions. An identifier is assigned as follows
1186 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1190 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic}, can be used
1191 later by preceding the name with a backslash, i.e., @code{\namedMusic}.
1192 In the next example, a two-note motive is repeated two times by using
1193 variable substitution
1195 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,nofragment]
1199 { \seufzer \seufzer }
1202 The name of an identifier should have alphabetic characters only; no
1203 numbers, underscores or dashes. The assignment should be outside of
1206 It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in the
1212 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1215 Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different
1216 places. The following example uses the above variables
1226 More information on the possible uses of identifiers is given in the
1227 technical manual, in @ref{Input variables and Scheme}.
1228 @c fixme: the ref is too technical.
1231 @node An orchestral part
1232 @section An orchestral part
1234 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
1235 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Identifiers can
1236 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
1237 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
1238 both the part and the full score.
1240 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
1241 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
1242 of a horn/@/bassoon duo
1245 hornNotes = \relative c @{
1252 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
1255 \include "horn-music.ly"
1257 instrument = "Horn in F"
1261 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
1268 \include "horn-music.ly"
1272 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
1273 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
1274 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
1275 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth downwards. Sounding
1276 @samp{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the
1277 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
1278 in the following output
1280 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1281 \transpose f c' \relative c {
1287 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
1288 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
1289 rest. It is entered with a capital @samp{R} followed by a duration
1290 (1@tie{}for a whole note, 2@tie{}for a half note, etc.). By multiplying the
1291 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
1292 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
1298 When printing the part, multi-rests
1299 must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable
1302 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
1306 This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the
1307 @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and
1308 this option to the music above, leads to the following result
1310 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1311 \transpose f c' \relative c {
1313 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
1320 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
1321 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
1322 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
1325 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
1326 \include "horn-music.ly"
1329 \new Staff \hornNotes
1330 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
1337 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1345 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b bes |
1346 a8 e f4 | g d | gis f
1351 More in-depth information on preparing parts and scores can be found
1352 in the notation manual; see @ref{Orchestral music}.
1354 Setting run-time variables (`properties') is discussed in
1355 @ref{Changing context properties on the fly}.
1362 * discuss expectations (?)
1366 * overview of chapters?