4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @nodes
5 @c Run M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus
7 @c before saving changes
11 @unnumberedsubsec Bugs
16 @c .{Reference Manual}
18 @node Reference Manual
19 @chapter Reference Manual
21 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
22 revision of this document was for LilyPond 1.3.138.
44 * Interpretation context::
54 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
55 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
56 program print musical symbols, it also makes esthetic decisions.
57 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
58 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
59 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
61 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension. The
62 Scheme library provides the glue that holds together the low-level
63 routines and separate modules general, which are C++
65 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
67 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
68 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
69 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
70 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
71 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
72 order in which notes are played.
75 in this step, the results of the interpretation, a typesetting
76 specification, is solved.
78 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") is written to the output file.
81 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
82 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
83 interpretation, @strong{context} is constructed, and with this context
84 af network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. The
85 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
86 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
87 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
90 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
91 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
92 design of the program. This manual is ordered in terms of user
93 tasks. With each concept will be explained to which of the three parts
102 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
103 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
104 brevity we omit obligotary lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
105 @code{\paper} declarations.
110 * Defining pitch names::
113 * Easy Notation note heads ::
126 @cindex Note specification
128 @cindex entering notes
130 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
132 @cindex @code{\pitch}
134 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
137 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
139 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
140 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
141 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
142 from @code{c}, to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
143 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
145 @cindex note names, Dutch
147 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
148 name. A flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
149 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
150 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
151 both forms are accepted.
153 LilyPond has predefined sets of notenames for various other languages.
154 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
155 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
156 the names they define are:
159 Note Names sharp flat
160 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
161 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
162 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
163 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
164 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
165 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
166 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
174 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
175 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
176 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
177 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
179 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
180 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
183 @c . {Defining pitch names}
184 @node Defining pitch names
185 @subsection Defining pitch names
187 @cindex defining pitch names
188 @cindex pitch names, defining
190 Note names and chord modifiers can be customised for nationalities. The
191 syntax is as follows.
193 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
194 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
196 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
197 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
200 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
201 specific examples how to do this.
207 @subsection Durations
211 @cindex @code{\duration}
213 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
215 \duration @var{scmduration}
217 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type Duration. See
218 @ref{Duration} for more information.
221 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
222 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
223 longer than a whole note, use identifiers.
229 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
231 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
237 \notes \relative c'' {
238 a\longa a\breve \autoBeamOff
239 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
241 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
246 \remove "Clef_engraver";
247 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver";
248 \remove "Time_signature_engraver";
249 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver";
256 As you can see, the longa is not printed. To get a longa note head, you
257 have to use a mensural note heads. This is done accomplished by setting
258 the @code{style} property of the NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}.
260 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
261 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
262 duration can be followed by a dot (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
266 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
272 You can alter the length of duration by appending
273 `@code{*}@var{fraction}'. This will not affect the appearance of the
274 notes or rests produced.
280 A note specification has the form
283 @var{pitch}[@var{octavespec}][!][?][@var{duration}]
286 LilyPond will determine what accidentals to typeset depending on the key
287 and context. The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether
288 an accidental is printed. A reminder accidental
289 @cindex reminder accidental
291 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
292 cautionary accidental,
293 @cindex cautionary accidental
294 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
295 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
297 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
298 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
302 @node Easy Notation note heads
303 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
305 @cindex easy notation
308 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
309 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
310 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
312 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
313 \include "paper26.ly"
315 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
316 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
320 Note that @code{EasyNotation} overrides a @code{Score} context. You
321 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it better
327 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
328 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
329 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond will produce the desired result.
339 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
340 with chords, it connects all of the note heads whose pitches match.
341 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'.
342 If you try to tie together chords which have no common pitches, a
343 warning message will appear and no ties will be created.
345 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
346 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
349 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
350 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
352 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
354 % \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
355 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
358 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
359 to the augmentation dot: the following example are three ways of notating
360 exactly the same concept.
361 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
367 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
368 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
369 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
371 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
372 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into Thread
373 context and turning off ties per Thread.
381 @cindex @code{\times}
383 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying their duration
386 @cindex @code{\times}
388 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
391 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
392 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
393 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
394 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
395 their written length:
397 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
398 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
401 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long brackets
402 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
403 @code{\times} only once. This saves typing work when you must make lots
406 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
407 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
408 \times 2/3 { c''8 c c c c c }
416 Rests are entered like notes, with note name `@code{r}'.
426 \skip @var{duration} @code{;}
431 Skips the amount of time specified by @var{duration}. If no other music
432 is played, a gap will be left for the skipped time with no notes
433 printed. The short hand is only available in Note and Chord mode.
438 @subsection Note mode
443 @cindex @code{\notes}
445 Note mode is the lexical mode generally used for inputting notes. The
451 This instructs the tokenizer to interpret @var{expr} in note mode. If a
452 a sequence of alfabetical characters, like @code{foobar}, LilyPond first
453 checks if @code{foobar} is a pitch name. If it is not a pitch name,
454 then it is treated as a string.
456 Numbers and dots indicate durations, so you can enter floating point
457 numbers in this mode.
461 @section Staff notation
463 @cindex Staff notation
473 @subsection Key signature
478 Changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key} command.
480 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type} @code{;}
483 @cindex @code{\minor}
484 @cindex @code{\major}
485 @cindex @code{\minor}
486 @cindex @code{\ionian}
487 @cindex @code{\locrian}
488 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
489 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
490 @cindex @code{\lydian}
491 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
492 @cindex @code{\dorian}
494 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
495 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively. The second
496 argument is optional; the default is major keys. The @var{\context}
497 argument can also be given as an integer, which tells the number of
498 semitones that should be added to the pitch given in the subsequent
499 @code{\key} commands to get the corresponding major key, e.g.,
500 @code{\minor} is defined as 3. The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
501 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
502 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
504 This command sets context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
506 @cindex @code{keySignature}
509 @subsection Clef changes
512 \clef @var{clefname} @code{;}
518 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
519 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
520 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra pitch of clefname}
523 Supported clef-names include
526 @item treble, violin, G, G2: G clef on 2nd line
527 @item french: G clef on 1st line
528 @item soprano: C clef on 1st line
529 @item mezzosoprano: C clef on 2nd line
530 @item alto: C clef on 3rd line
531 @item tenor: C clef on 4th line
532 @item baritone: C clef on 5th line
533 @item varbaritone: F clef on 3rd line
534 @item bass, F: F clef on 4th line
535 @item subbass: F clef on 5th line
536 @item percussion: percussion clef
539 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
542 @item clefs-C: modern style C clef
543 @item clefs-F: modern style F clef
544 @item clefs-G: modern style G clef
545 @item clefs-vaticana_do: Editio Vaticana style do clef
546 @item clefs-vaticana_fa: Editio Vaticana style fa clef
547 @item clefs-medicaea_do: Editio Medicaea style do clef
548 @item clefs-medicaea_fa: Editio Medicaea style fa clef
549 @item clefs-mensural1_c: modern style mensural C clef
550 @item clefs-mensural2_c: historic style small mensural C clef
551 @item clefs-mensural3_c: historic style big mensural C clef
552 @item clefs-mensural1_f: historic style traditional mensural F clef
553 @item clefs-mensural2_f: historic style new mensural F clef
554 @item clefs-mensural_g: historic style mensural G clef
555 @item clefs-hufnagel_do: historic style hufnagel do clef
556 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa: historic style hufnagel fa clef
557 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa: historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
558 @item clefs-percussion: modern style percussion clef
561 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
562 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
563 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
566 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
567 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
568 @cindex hufnagel clefs
571 @c . {Time signature}
573 @subsection Time signature
574 @cindex Time signature
578 The time signature is changed by the @code{\time} command. Syntax:
580 \time @var{numerator}@code{/}@var{denominator} @code{;}
582 Internally, this is a short-cut for doing
584 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{numerator} . @var{denominator})
587 [TODO: discuss options for layout]
594 @cindex partial measure
595 @cindex measure, partial
596 @cindex shorten measures
597 @cindex @code{\partial}
599 Partial measures are entered using the @code{\partial} command:
601 \partial @var{duration} @code{;}
604 Internally, this is a short cut for
607 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
613 @subsection Bar lines
617 @cindex measure lines
624 This is a short-cut for doing
626 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
629 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
630 @ref{Repeats}, and the documentation of @code{whichBar} in the generated
634 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
636 @cindex repeatCommands
637 @cindex defaultBarType
639 Bar lines are created by the @code{Bar_line_engraver}. That engraver examines
640 @code{whichBar} at every moment. Whenever it is set to a string, it will
641 create a bar with that type. @code{whichBar} is usually set
642 automatically: at the start of a measure it is set to
643 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} is used to
644 override default measure bars.
646 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
647 @code{\bar ; }. These settings take precedence over automatic @code{whichBar}
656 [TODO: collisions, rest-collisinos, voiceX identifiers, how to
657 which contexts to instantiate. some small examples? ]
661 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
662 @item @code{\shiftOff}
663 Disable horizontal shifting of note heads that collide.
665 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
666 @item @code{\shiftOn}
667 Enable note heads that collide with other note heads to be
668 shifted horiztonally. Also @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn}
669 set different shift values.
671 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
672 @item @code{\stemBoth}
673 Allow stems and beams to point either upwards or
674 downwards, decided automatically by LilyPond.
676 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
677 @item @code{\stemDown}
678 Force stems and beams to point down.
680 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
682 Force stems and beams to point up.
685 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
686 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
687 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
688 Similarly, for slurs use
692 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
693 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
694 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
700 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
701 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
702 @cindex @code{\voiceThree}
703 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
704 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
705 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
706 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
708 If two voices sharing one staff have the same stem directions, their
709 note heads may collide. You can shift the note heads of one voice by
710 setting @code{\shiftOn}. This can be undone by setting
713 For simple polyphonic music, shorthands are available that combine
714 directions and shift settings: @code{\voiceOne}, @code{\voiceTwo},
715 @code{\voiceThree}, @code{\voiceFour} and @code{\oneVoice}.
721 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
722 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted, but if
723 you're not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can either instruct
724 lilypond which patterns to beam automatically. In specific cases, you
725 can also specify explicitly what to beam and what not.
728 @c . {Automatic beams}
729 @subsection Automatic beams
731 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
732 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
733 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
735 A large number of Voice properties are used to decide how to generate
736 beams. Their default values appear in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
738 By default, automatic beams can start on any note@footnote{In exotic
739 time signatures such as 1/8 and 1/16 this is not true} but can only end
740 in a few positions within the measure: they can end on a beat, or at
741 durations specified by the properties in
742 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
743 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
745 The syntax for changing the value @code{autoBeamSettings} is set using
746 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
748 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{N} @var{M} @var{P} @var{Q}) = @var{dur}
749 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{N} @var{M} @var{P} @var{Q})
751 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
752 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
753 @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time signature (@code{* *} may be entered to
754 designate all time signatures), @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of
755 the beamed notes (@code{* *} designate notes of any length).
757 If you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note, you can
760 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
761 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
763 The duration a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note. It is entered as
764 @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
766 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
767 example, you automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
769 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
770 #'(begin * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
772 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
773 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
774 3/8 has passed within the measure).
776 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
777 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
778 replacing the first asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
779 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
781 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
782 #'(begin 6 8 * *) = ...
785 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
786 second pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
787 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
788 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end * * 1
791 [say something about irregular meters. eg 5/8 = 2+3/8, 3+2/8]
793 Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
795 @cindex automatic beam generation
797 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
799 Automatic beaming is on by default, but it can switched off by setting
800 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
801 a melody that goes with lyrics.
804 @cindex Automatic beams
805 @subsection Manual beams
806 @cindex beams, manual
810 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
811 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
812 rests or bar lines, so if you want that, specify the begin and end point
813 manually using @code{[} and @code{]}:
816 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
818 r4 [r8 g'' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
821 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the auto beam will not produce
824 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
826 If you have specific wishes for the number of beams, you can fully
827 control the number of beams through the properties
828 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}.
830 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
833 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
837 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
839 The beam symbol can be tweaked through @code{Voice.Beam}'s
840 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position},
843 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
846 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
847 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
848 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
853 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
854 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
857 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
858 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #2
859 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-2
863 @cindex @code{default-neutral-direction}
865 @node Expressive marks
866 @section Expressive marks
881 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}. In
882 lilypond, they are entered using parentheses:
883 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
884 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
888 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are attached to note heads whenever
889 possible. In some instances involving beams slurs may be attached to a
890 stem end. If you want to override this layout you can do this through
891 @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{attachment}:
893 Maybe reinclude other slur features and move back to tricks? Esp. the
894 second example, how to fix, can be very helpful.
897 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
898 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
899 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
901 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
906 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
907 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
908 stems might look better:
911 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
912 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
913 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
915 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
921 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
922 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
923 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
924 is in @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
925 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
926 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
927 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
928 express this by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
930 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
931 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
932 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
933 c'16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
935 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
941 The definition for @code{beautiful} is vague, the default setting is
942 experimental computer science.
944 @cindex Adusting slurs
947 @subsection Phrasing slur
949 @cindex phrasing slur
950 @cindex phrasing mark
952 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
953 indicate a musical sentence. It is entered using @code{\(} and
956 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
957 \time 6/4; c''\((d)e f(e)\)d
960 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
961 slur. The grob associated with it is @code{Voice.PhrasingSlur}.
964 @subsection Breath marks
966 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}:
968 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
972 Currently, only tick marks are supported, comma style breath marks are
973 not. The grob for this object is called @code{Voice.BreathingSign}.
978 Currently, only tick marks are supported, comma style breath marks are
986 @cindex beats per minute
987 @cindex metronome marking
989 @cindex @code{\tempo}
991 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute} @code{;}
994 Used to specify the tempo. For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76;} requests
995 output with 76 quarter notes per minute.
999 The tempo setting is not printed, but is currently only used in the MIDI
1005 @subsection Text spanner
1006 @cindex Text spanner
1008 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando, accelerando, often extend
1009 over a many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1010 dotted line. You can create such texts in LilyPond using
1011 text spanners. The syntax is as follows:
1013 \spanrequest \start "text"
1014 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1016 LilyPond will respond by creating a @code{Voice.TextSpanner} grob. The
1017 string to be printed, as well as the style is set through grob
1020 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1021 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1022 \relative c' { a'''' b c a
1023 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1024 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1025 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1026 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1027 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1043 @subsection Articulation
1044 @cindex Articulation
1046 @cindex articulations
1050 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1051 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1052 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1053 are defined in @file{script.ly} and @file{script.scm}. Symbols can be
1054 forced to appear above or below the note by writing
1055 `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}'
1056 respectively. Here is a chart showing symbols above notes, with the
1057 name of the corresponding symbol appearing underneath.
1062 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =
1064 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1065 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''-\fermata
1066 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1067 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1068 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1069 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1070 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1071 c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1073 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1074 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1075 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1076 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1077 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1078 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1079 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1080 thumb__ segno__ coda
1084 linewidth = 5.875\in;
1090 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1091 @lilypond[singleline]
1093 \notes \context Voice {
1094 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1095 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1101 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1108 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand.
1109 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1110 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1114 @cindex @code{\script}
1123 Defines a script printing request. The argument is a string which
1124 points into the script-alias table defined in @file{scm/script.scm}.
1125 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1126 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1128 For information on how to add scripts, consult @file{scm/script.scm}.
1133 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1134 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1136 Unfortunately, there is no support adding fingering instructions or
1137 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1138 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1143 @subsection Text scripts
1144 @cindex Text scripts
1146 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1147 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1148 @code{c^"text"}. The text is typeset in italic by default.
1150 The amount of space taken by these indications by default does not
1151 influence, spacing, but setting @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} to true will
1152 take the widths into account. The identifier @code{\fattext} is defined
1153 in the standard includes.
1154 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1155 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1158 Text scripts are created in form of @code{Voice.TextScript} grobs.
1160 For purposes of defining identifiers, a more verbose form also exists:
1163 \textscript @var{text}
1166 Defines a text to be printed over or under a note. @var{text} is a
1167 string or a markup text.
1171 foo = \textscript #'(finger "6")
1178 This is equivalent to @code{c4-6 c4-"foo"}.
1183 @subsection Grace notes
1192 @cindex @code{\grace}
1195 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1197 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1198 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1199 The syntax is as follows.
1201 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1204 When grace music is interpreted, a score-within-a-score is set up:
1205 @var{musicexpr} has its own time bookkeeping, and you could (for
1206 example) have a separate time signature within grace notes. While in
1207 this score-within-a-score, you can create notes, beams, slurs, etc.
1208 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1209 stem. This behavior can be controlled with the
1210 @code{Stem}.@code{flag-style} property.
1213 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1215 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1216 \grace { \property Grace.Stem \override #'flag-style = ##f c16 } c4
1223 At present, nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following
1224 may cause run-time errors:
1226 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1228 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1229 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1230 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1231 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1232 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1235 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1236 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1237 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1241 The present implementation of grace notes is not robust and generally
1242 kludgy. We expect it to change after LilyPond 1.4. Syntax changes might
1243 also be implemented.
1256 @subsubsection Glissando
1259 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1261 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to a
1265 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1272 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1279 @subsubsection Dynamics
1292 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1302 Absolute dynamic marks are specified by using an identifier after a
1303 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1304 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1305 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1306 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1309 @cindex Crescendo and Decrescendo
1313 @cindex @code{\decr}
1314 @cindex @code{\rced}
1320 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1321 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1322 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1323 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1324 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1325 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1326 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1327 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1328 want to get several marks during one note, you must use spacer notes.
1330 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1331 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1332 < f''1 { s4 \< \! s2 \> \! s4 } >
1337 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1338 is an example how to do it:
1340 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1342 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1343 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1359 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1361 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1362 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1363 different variants of repeats.
1367 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1371 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1372 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1375 Alternative endings are written stacked. Which is unfortunately not
1376 practical for anything right now.
1382 Make measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1388 * Manual repeat commands::
1390 * Tremolo subdivision::
1395 @subsection Repeat syntax
1397 The syntax for repeats is
1400 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1403 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1404 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1406 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1408 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1410 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1412 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1413 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1415 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1416 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1419 With alternative endings:
1421 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1423 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1424 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1428 Folded repeats look like this:@footnote{Folded repeats offer little
1429 more over simultaneous music. However, it is to be expected that
1430 more functionality -- especially for the MIDI backend -- will be
1431 implemented at some point in the future.}
1434 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1436 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1437 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1443 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1444 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1445 the specified number of repeats.
1448 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1452 \repeat volta 3 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1453 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1461 As you can see, LilyPond doesn't remember the timing information, nor
1462 are slurs or ties repeated, so you have to reset timing information
1463 after a repeat, e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}),
1464 @code{Score.measurePosition} or @code{\partial}. We hope to fix this
1467 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}, although it probably is only
1468 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1470 @node Manual repeat commands
1471 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1473 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1475 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1476 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1484 @item (volta . @var{text})
1485 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1487 Stop a running volta bracket
1490 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1492 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1494 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1499 @node Tremolo repeats
1500 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1501 @cindex tremolo beams
1503 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1505 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1507 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1508 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1509 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1510 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1511 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1519 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1520 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1522 @node Tremolo subdivision
1523 @subsection Tremolo subdivision
1524 @cindex tremolo marks
1525 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1527 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1528 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1529 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1530 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1531 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1533 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1536 Using this mechanism pays off when you entering many tremolos, since the
1537 default argument saves a lot of typing.
1542 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1545 @node Measure repeats
1546 @subsection Measure repeats
1548 @cindex percent repeats
1549 @cindex measure repeats
1551 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1552 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1554 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1555 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 5 { c'1 } }
1558 At present, only repeats of whole measures are supported.
1560 @node Rhythmic music
1561 @section Rhythmic music
1568 @node Rhythmic staffs
1569 @subsection Rhythmic staffs
1571 Some times you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1572 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1573 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1575 @lilypond[fragment,relative ]
1576 \context RhythmicStaff {
1578 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1585 @section Piano music
1587 Piano music is an odd type of notation: two staffs are largely
1588 independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the two staffs. The
1589 @code{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1590 behavior. In this section we discuss the @code{PianoStaff} and some
1591 other pianistic peculiarities.
1594 * Automatic staff changes::
1595 * Manual staff switches::
1602 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1603 @node Automatic staff changes
1604 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1605 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1607 Voices can be switched from top to bottom staff automatically. The
1610 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1612 This will switch notation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1613 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1614 @code{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1615 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1616 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1618 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1619 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1620 \context Staff = "up" {
1621 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1622 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1623 \context Staff = "down" {
1629 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1630 terminating too soon.
1633 @node Manual staff switches
1634 @subsection Manual staff switches
1636 @cindex manual staff switches
1637 @cindex staff switch, manual
1639 Voices can be switched between staffs manually, using the following command:
1641 \translator Staff = @var{which} @var{music}
1643 The string @var{which} is the name of the staff. Typically it is
1644 @code{"up"} or @code{"down"}.
1646 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating that the
1647 context which is a direct child of the a context of type
1648 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1649 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1651 @cindex @code{\translator}
1653 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1662 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1663 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaChorda},
1664 @code{\treChorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1666 These identifiers are short hands for spanner commands of the types
1667 @code{Sustain}, @code{UnaChorda} and @code{Sostenuto}:
1669 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1670 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1673 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1674 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1675 types. Refer to the generated documentation for more information.
1680 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (ie. *Ped
1686 @subsection Arpeggio
1689 @cindex broken arpeggio
1690 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1692 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1693 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1697 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1698 \context Voice <c'\arpeggio e g c>
1702 When an arpeggio crosses staffs in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1703 to the chords in both staffs, and set
1704 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1707 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1708 \context PianoStaff <
1709 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1710 \context Voice = one { <c''\arpeggio e g c> }
1711 \context Voice = other { \clef bass; <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1716 This command creates @code{Arpeggio} grobs.
1720 It is not possible to mix
1721 connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios at the same time.
1724 @c . {VoiceFollower}
1726 @subsection VoiceFollower
1728 @cindex follow voice
1729 @cindex staff switching
1732 @cindex @code{followVoice}
1734 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
1735 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
1736 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
1739 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1740 \context PianoStaff <
1741 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
1742 \context Staff \context Voice {
1744 \translator Staff=two
1747 \context Staff=two {\clef bass; \skip 1*2;}
1761 * Automatic syllable durations::
1767 @subsection Lyrics mode
1770 To print lyrics in LilyPond, you must first make a music expression from
1771 the lyric text. When they're in a music expression, that music
1772 expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate context. We shall
1773 discuss lyric printing in this order.
1777 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
1779 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
1780 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
1781 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
1782 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
1784 The precise definition of this mode is in @ref{Lyrics mode
1785 definition}. The definition itself is ludicrous, and this will remain so
1786 until the authors of LilyPond acquire a deeper understanding of
1787 character encoding, or someone else steps up to fix this.
1789 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
1790 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
1791 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
1794 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes
1795 (@code{"}) or by using an underscore without quotes: @code{He_could4
1796 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to spaces.
1798 @c . {Printing lyrics}
1799 @node Printing lyrics
1800 @subsection Printing lyrics
1803 Normally, you will want to have notes and syllables matched
1804 automatically. This is accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is
1805 documented in @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting
1806 @code{automaticMelismata} in the melody staff, will cause slurs to be
1807 interpreted as melismata. Lyric syllables must be interpreted within a
1808 @code{Lyrics} context in order to printing them.
1810 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1811 \addlyrics \notes \relative c' {
1813 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
1816 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1818 share the so -- ftware; }
1822 @cindex lyric extender
1825 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
1826 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
1827 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
1828 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
1832 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
1833 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
1834 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
1835 will result in a hyphen which length varies depending on the space
1836 between syllables, and which will be centered between the syllables.
1838 @cindex Lyric hyphen
1840 @node Automatic syllable durations
1841 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
1842 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
1844 @cindex automatic lyric durations
1845 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
1847 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can import the rhythm
1848 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
1851 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
1854 This means that both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are
1855 interpreted, but that every non-command atomic music expression
1856 (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted using timing
1857 of @var{musicexpr1}.
1858 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
1860 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
1861 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
1864 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1867 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
1868 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
1870 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1874 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
1875 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
1876 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
1878 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
1880 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
1881 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
1883 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
1884 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
1887 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
1888 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
1889 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
1891 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1894 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
1896 \context Lyrics \lyrics
1901 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
1902 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
1905 @subsection More stanzas
1909 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the separate
1910 syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can do this if
1911 you explain it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
1913 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
1914 to name starting with that identity. In the following example, the Voice
1915 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
1916 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
1919 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1922 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4;
1924 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
1925 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
1926 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
1927 Hi, my name is bert. }
1928 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
1929 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
1930 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
1935 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
1936 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems.
1938 @cindex stanza numbering
1946 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
1947 a harmonic device that is characterized by a set of pitches. It is
1948 something different from simultaneous music, although you can express a
1949 chord using simultaneous music. In fact, chords are internally stored as
1950 simultaneous music expressions. This means you can enter chords by name,
1951 and print them as note head, or enter as notes and print as chord names:
1954 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1955 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
1965 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
1966 \context Staff \twoWays > }
1969 Note that this example also shows that the LilyPond chord does not
1970 attempt to be intelligent, if you enter @code{f bes d}, it does no
1971 attempt to find out whether it this is an inversion.
1975 * Printing named chords::
1980 @subsection Chords mode
1983 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
1984 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
1985 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
1986 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
1988 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
1989 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
1991 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
1994 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
1997 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration}
1998 is the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
1999 modifiers. One type is @emph{chord additions}, which are obtained by
2000 listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written by its
2001 number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising or
2002 lowering by half a step. Chord additions has two effects: It adds
2003 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2004 chord, and it may lower or raise the specified interval. Intervals
2005 must be separated by a dot (@code{.}).
2007 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2008 using @code{\transpose}.
2013 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2017 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5- c:4.6.8
2029 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2030 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2031 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2032 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2033 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2034 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2035 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2039 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2042 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2050 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2051 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2054 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2063 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2064 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2065 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the
2066 specified note is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2068 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2078 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2079 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2080 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2081 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2083 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2095 @c . {Printing named chords}
2096 @node Printing named chords
2097 @subsection Printing named chords
2099 @cindex printing chord names
2102 @cindex @code{ChordNames}
2105 For displaying printed chord names, use the @code{ChordNames} context.
2106 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2107 directly using simultaneous music.
2110 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2112 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2116 \context ChordNames \scheme
2117 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2123 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting property
2124 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2125 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of the
2131 c1:m \break c:m c:m c:m d
2136 \context ChordNames {
2137 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2139 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2144 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2145 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2146 added base, which may result in strange chord names when chords are
2147 entered as a list of pitches:
2152 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2161 \context ChordNamesVoice \scheme
2162 \context Staff \scheme
2169 By default LilyPond uses chord name system proposed by Harald Banter
2170 (See @ref{Literature}). The system is is unambiguous and has a logical
2171 structure. Typical American style chord names may be selected by
2172 setting the @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName}
2173 grob to @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz
2176 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2177 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2178 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}.
2180 [3 short examples showing differences between american, banter and jazz]
2183 @section Writing parts
2185 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2186 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2187 problems in orchestral music.
2194 * Instrument names::
2196 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2197 * Multi measure rests::
2198 * Automatic part combining::
2199 * Hara-kiri staffs::
2202 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2203 @node Rehearsal marks
2204 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2205 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2207 @cindex @code{\mark}
2208 @cindex @code{Mark_engraver}
2211 \mark @var{unsigned};
2216 With this command, you can print a rehearsal mark above the system. You
2217 can provide a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If there is
2218 no argument, the property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically
2221 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2227 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno") ;
2233 @subsection Bar numbers
2235 Bar numbers are printed at the start of the line by default. This is
2236 done by the @code{Bar_number_engraver} in the Score context.
2240 It is currently not possible to make boxed bar numbers, or print them at
2244 @node Instrument names
2245 @subsection Instrument names
2247 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2248 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2249 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2250 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2252 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2254 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 } }
2256 \translator { \StaffContext
2257 \consists "Instrument_name_engraver"; } } }
2260 This requires that you add the @code{Instrument_name_engraver} to the
2265 @subsection Transpose
2267 @cindex transposition of pitches
2268 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2270 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2273 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2276 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2279 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2280 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2281 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2285 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2288 { \key e \major; c d e f }
2290 \transpose des'' { \key e \major; c d e f }
2291 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major; c d e f }
2297 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2298 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2299 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2301 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2302 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2304 When you want to play a score containing transposed and untransposed
2305 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2306 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2307 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2309 @cindex @code{transposing}
2312 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2313 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2317 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2318 @node Multi measure rests
2319 @subsection Multi measure rests
2320 @cindex Multi measure rests
2324 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2325 meant for entering parts: the rest can expand to fill a score with
2326 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2327 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2328 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2331 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2332 \time 3/4; R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2335 Currently, there is no way to condense multiple rests into a single
2338 @cindex condensing rests
2340 @node Automatic part combining
2341 @subsection Automatic part combining
2342 @cindex automatic part combining
2343 @cindex part combiner
2345 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto on
2346 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting Hymns
2347 and orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2348 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, stem
2349 directions are set automatically. Also, soli and @emph{a due} parts can be
2350 identified and marke.
2352 The syntax for part combining is
2355 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2358 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2359 combined into one context @var{context}. The names of the music
2360 expressions must start with the prefixes @code{one} and @code{two}.
2362 [Name of music expressions? is that context name? ]
2364 The most useful function of the part combiner to combining threads into
2365 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2367 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2369 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2370 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2373 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2379 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2380 specified twice (once in each Thread). Also note that stem, slur and tie
2381 directions are set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or
2382 unisono. The Thread called @code{one} always gets up stems, and "solo",
2383 while @code{two} always gets down stems and "Solo II".
2385 If you just want the splitting of Threads and setting of directions, and
2386 not the textual markings, you may set the property @var{soloADue} to
2387 false. This mode can be used to set hymns:
2389 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2391 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2392 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2393 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2396 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2402 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak
2403 the behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2404 documentation. Look for @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2405 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2407 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2408 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2409 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2411 @node Hara-kiri staffs
2412 @subsection Hara-kiri staffs
2417 @footnote{Harakiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2418 the Japanese Samourai warriors.}
2428 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for "guard") is a
2429 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2430 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2431 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2432 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2437 \notes { c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d' }
2441 \consists Custos_engraver;
2442 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural;
2449 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th century.
2450 There were different appearences for different notation styles.
2451 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2452 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2455 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2456 @code{StaffContext} when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2457 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2458 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2459 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2466 \consists Custos_engraver;
2467 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural;
2472 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2477 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2478 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2482 @c . {Tuning output}
2484 @section Tuning output
2486 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2487 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2488 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2489 ways to do just that.
2491 Notation output is specified in so called grobs (graphic objects). Each
2492 grob carries with it a set of properties (grob properties) specific to
2493 that object. For example, a stem grob has properties that specify its
2494 direction, length and thickness.
2497 The most common way of tuning the output is to alter the values of these
2498 properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can temporarily
2499 change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus affecting a whole
2500 set of objects. Second, you can select one specific object, and set a
2504 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2505 * Tuning per grob ::
2510 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2511 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2513 @cindex grob description
2515 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a context
2516 property. By assigning to that property (using plain @code{\property}),
2517 you can change the resulting grobs.
2519 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2520 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'meta = #'((interfaces . ())) c'4
2523 The @code{\property} statement effectively empties the definition of the
2524 Stem object. One of the effects is that property specifying how it
2525 should be printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible.
2531 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2532 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2533 mechanism: you can add a property on top of an existing definition, or
2534 remove a property: @code{\override} adds a settings, @code{\revert}
2535 removes that setting.
2538 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2539 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2543 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
2544 list. Since it is singly linked, we can treat it as a stack, and
2545 @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
2546 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding automatic
2549 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2550 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2551 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
2552 including crashes. In other words, if you use @code{\override} and
2553 @code{\revert}, be sure to balance the overrides and reverts.
2555 If balancing them is too much work, use the @code{\set} shorthand. It
2556 performs a revert followed by an override:
2558 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #2.0
2561 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2563 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2564 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2565 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2567 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2568 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2572 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
2576 @node Tuning per grob
2577 @subsection Tuning per grob
2579 @cindex \outputproperty
2581 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
2583 Syntax is as follows
2585 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2587 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
2588 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
2589 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
2590 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
2591 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
2593 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
2594 the appropriate context to apply this to.
2596 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
2597 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
2599 Here are some random examples:
2601 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
2603 \context Staff \outputproperty
2604 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
2605 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
2609 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
2611 This selects all note heads occurring at current staff level, and sets
2612 the @code{extra-offset} of those heads to @code{(0.5,0.75)}, shifting
2615 Move the text "m.d.", but not the fingering instruction "2".
2616 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2617 #(define (make-text-checker text)
2618 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
2621 \notes\relative c''' {
2622 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
2623 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
2624 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
2634 @subsection What to tune?
2636 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but what variables are there? The
2637 question is not answered in this manual (although you may encounter
2640 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
2641 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables are part
2642 of the generated documentation: this documentation is generated from the
2643 sourcecode of lily for each version, so it is usually mch more up to
2644 date than this manual. It should be available from the same place where
2645 you got this manual.
2647 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
2650 which grob to modify
2652 which property to modify
2654 which context the grob comes from.
2657 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
2658 of grobs. Each one can be clicked, taking you to a overview of the
2659 available properties.
2661 There is also a master list of contexts. Clicking each takes you to an
2662 overview of the context, listing which grob types are created there.
2667 @subsection Text markup
2671 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
2672 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
2673 in the following way.
2678 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2681 c^#'(upright "upright")
2682 c_#'((bold upright) "bold")
2683 d^#'(lines "one" ((bold upright) "two"))
2684 e_#'(music (named "noteheads-2" "flags-u3"))
2688 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
2689 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
2692 text: string | (head? text+)
2693 head: markup | (markup+)
2694 markup-item: property | abbrev | @var{fontstyle}
2695 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
2696 abbrev: @code{rows lines roman music bold italic named super sub text}
2699 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
2700 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
2701 pair is a grob property.
2703 The following abbreviations are currently
2708 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
2710 vertical mode: set every text on new line
2720 lookup by character name
2722 plain text lookup (by character value)
2729 @var{fontstyle} may be any of @code{finger volta timesig mmrest mark
2730 script large Large dynamic}
2732 [wat is het verschil tussen fontstyle en abbrev?]
2735 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
2736 avoided because this makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
2737 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
2738 commands won't work with direct postscript output.
2742 @section Page layout
2756 @subsection Paper block
2759 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
2760 music notation. The syntax is
2763 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
2766 where each of the items is one of
2769 @item An assignment. The assignment must be terminated by a
2772 @item A context definition. See @ref{Notation Contexts} for
2773 more information on context definitions.
2775 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
2777 \stylesheet @var{alist}
2780 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
2781 @item an \elementdescriptions declaration.
2783 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
2785 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
2789 @c . {Paper variables}
2790 @node Paper variables
2791 @subsection Paper variables
2792 @cindex Paper variables
2794 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
2797 @cindex @code{indent}
2799 The indentation of the first line of music.
2800 @cindex @code{staffspace}
2802 @item @code{staffspace}
2803 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
2804 of the lines. If you want scale independent output, then you should
2805 use either this or @code{stafflinethickness}
2806 as a unit for distances you modify.
2808 @cindex @code{linewidth}
2809 @item @code{linewidth}
2810 Sets the width of the lines.
2812 If set to a negative value, a single
2813 unjustified line is produced.
2815 @cindex @code{textheight}
2817 @item @code{textheight}
2818 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
2821 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
2823 @item @code{interscoreline}
2824 Sets the spacing between systems.
2826 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
2830 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
2831 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
2832 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
2833 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
2838 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
2840 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
2841 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
2842 parameter for other line thicknesses.
2849 @subsection Font size
2852 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
2853 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
2854 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
2855 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
2857 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
2858 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
2859 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
2860 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
2861 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
2862 @code{\paper} block is also set.
2864 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
2865 details, see the file @file{font.scm}.
2871 @subsection Paper size
2876 @cindex @code{papersize}
2878 To change the paper size, you must first set the
2879 @code{papersize} variable at top level. Set it to
2880 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
2881 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
2882 the default font, then use the 20 point font. The new paper size will
2883 not take effect if the font is not loaded and selected afterwards.
2887 \include "paper16.ly"
2891 \paper @{ \paperSixteen @}
2895 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
2896 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
2907 @subsection Line break
2910 @cindex breaking lines
2912 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
2913 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
2916 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
2917 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
2918 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
2919 are barlines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
2920 barline, you can force an invisible barline by entering @code{\bar "";}.
2922 Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
2924 @cindex @code{\penalty}
2926 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
2927 the penalty command:
2929 \penalty @var{int} @code{;}
2932 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
2937 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
2938 command is rather kludgy, and slated for rewriting.
2942 @subsection Page break
2945 @cindex breaking pages
2948 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
2949 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
2950 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. For more
2951 details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
2962 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
2963 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, tieing,
2964 etc., but it is good enough for proof-hearing the music you enter.
2966 Dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
2968 [TODO: mention volume control/Instrument Equaliser]
2973 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
2974 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
2978 * MIDI instrument names::
2983 @subsection MIDI block
2987 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
2988 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
2992 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
2993 @item context definitions
2996 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3000 @cindex context definition
3002 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3003 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3004 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3007 @node MIDI instrument names
3008 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3010 @cindex instrument names
3011 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3012 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3014 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3015 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3016 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3017 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3021 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3022 default piano. It is not possible to select an instrument by number.
3034 @section Music entry
3042 One of the applications of LilyPond is to enter music from existing
3043 written or printed material. When you're doing this kind of copying
3044 work, you can easily make mistakes. This section deals with tricks and
3045 features that help you enter music, and find and correct mistakes.
3049 @subsection Relative
3051 @cindex relative octave specification
3053 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3054 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3055 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3056 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3058 @cindex @code{\relative}
3060 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3063 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3064 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3065 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less.
3066 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can then
3067 be added to raise or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering
3068 relative mode, an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will
3069 act as the predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3071 This distance is determined without regarding accidentals: a
3072 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3075 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3076 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3082 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3083 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3085 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
3088 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
3089 to determine the first note of the next chord. But other notes
3090 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
3093 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3100 @cindex @code{\notes}
3102 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a notename. To parse
3103 the pitch as a notename, you have to be in note mode, so there must
3104 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
3107 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
3108 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
3109 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
3110 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
3115 @subsection Bar check
3119 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
3123 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
3124 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
3125 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
3126 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
3127 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
3129 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}
3133 @c . {Point and click}
3134 @node Point and click
3135 @subsection Point and click
3137 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
3138 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
3139 error in the sheet music.
3141 To use it, you need the following software
3145 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
3146 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
3148 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
3149 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
3150 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
3155 Add one these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
3156 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
3157 patching @code{emacsclient}.
3160 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
3161 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
3164 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
3169 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
3170 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
3171 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
3172 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
3173 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
3174 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
3175 (eg. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
3176 init file, beifore invoking server-start.
3179 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
3183 Xdvi must be configured to use the emacs editor. Before starting, set
3184 the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} to
3186 emacsclient --no-wait +%c:%l %f
3188 Xdvi also must be configured to find the fonts. Refer to the
3189 xdvi documentation for more information.
3191 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
3192 line and column. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all clickable boxes.
3196 When you convert the TeX file to PostScript using dvips, dvips
3197 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints are
3198 harmless, and can be ignored.
3201 @node Interpretation context
3202 @section Interpretation context
3205 * Notation Contexts::
3206 * Creating contexts::
3207 * Default contexts::
3208 * Context properties::
3209 * Changing context definitions::
3210 * Defining new contexts::
3214 @c . {Notation Contexts}
3215 @node Notation Contexts
3216 @subsection Notation Contexts
3218 @cindex notation contexts
3220 Notation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of LilyPond.
3221 During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
3222 "interpreting music"), the music expresiion in a @code{\score} block is
3223 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
3226 During this interpretation, the notation context is holds the state for
3227 the current point within the music. It contains information like
3230 @item What notes are playing at this point?
3231 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
3232 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
3236 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @code{Voice} context is
3237 contained in a @code{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
3238 multiple voices at any point), a @code{Staff} context is contained in
3239 a @code{Score}, @code{StaffGroup}, or @code{ChoirStaff} context (because
3240 these can all contain multiple staffs).
3243 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
3244 contexts}, those for sound output are called performance contexts.
3247 @node Creating contexts
3248 @subsection Creating contexts
3250 @cindex @code{\context}
3251 @cindex context selection
3253 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
3254 following music expression.
3257 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
3260 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
3261 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
3262 context does not exist, it will be created.
3266 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3268 \notes \relative c'' {
3269 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
3276 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
3277 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
3278 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
3279 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
3280 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
3281 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
3282 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
3286 @node Default contexts
3287 @subsection Default contexts
3289 Most music expressions don't need @code{\context}: they inherit the
3290 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
3291 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
3292 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
3294 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3295 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
3298 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
3301 First, every top-level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
3302 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
3305 \context Score @var{music}
3309 Second, sequential music follows the contexts of its
3310 ``children''. Consider the following example.
3312 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3313 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
3316 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
3317 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
3318 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
3319 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
3320 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
3321 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
3323 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
3324 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
3327 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3328 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
3331 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
3332 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
3334 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3335 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
3340 @node Context properties
3341 @subsection Context properties
3343 Notation contexts can be modified from within the @file{.ly} file. The
3344 following music expression does that job:
3346 @cindex @code{\property}
3348 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
3351 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
3352 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
3353 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
3355 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
3356 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
3357 @code{Voice} context can be set in the @code{Score} context (for
3358 example) and thus take effect in all @code{Voice} contexts.
3360 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
3362 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
3365 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
3366 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
3367 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
3372 @code{\property \unset} is not the inverse of @code{\property \set}
3377 @c . {Context definitions}
3378 @node Changing context definitions
3379 @subsection Changing context definitions
3381 @cindex context definition
3382 @cindex translator definition
3384 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
3385 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
3386 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
3390 @var{context-identifier}
3393 Then you can add engravers, remove engravers.
3394 The syntax for these operations are respectively
3396 \remove @var{engravername}
3397 \consists @var{engravername}
3401 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
3404 @var{propname} = @var{value}
3408 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3412 \translator { \StaffContext
3413 \remove Clef_engraver;
3419 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
3422 @var{propname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme
3425 @var{propname} = @var{value}
3426 @var{propname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3427 @var{propname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3428 @var{propname} \revert @var{symbol}
3432 These type of property assignments happen before interpretation starts,
3433 so a @code{\property} expression will override any predefined settings.
3436 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
3437 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
3438 @code{VoiceContext}.
3440 @node Defining new contexts
3441 @subsection Defining new contexts
3443 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
3444 following extra information:
3446 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname};}.
3448 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
3455 \type "Engraver_group_engraver";
3456 \name "SimpleStaff";
3458 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver";
3459 \consists "Note_head_engraver";
3460 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver";
3464 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
3465 special C++ classes.
3467 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
3468 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
3469 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
3470 for this engraver are the following:
3472 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
3473 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
3474 The standard cooperation engraver.
3476 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
3478 @item @code{Score_engraver}
3479 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
3480 and only the toplevel context.
3482 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
3484 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
3485 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
3486 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to created an embedded
3493 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name} @code{;}
3494 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
3495 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
3497 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername} @code{;}
3498 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
3499 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
3502 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
3503 insures they are put there, and stay there, if a user adds or
3504 removes engravers. This command is usually not needed for
3507 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname} @code{;}
3508 Add @var{contextname} to the list of context this context can
3509 contain. The first listed context is the context to create by
3512 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
3513 completeness, but is never used in practice.
3516 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname} @code{;}
3517 This sets name of the context, e.g. @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}. If
3518 the name is not specified, the translator won't do anything.
3521 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
3522 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
3523 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
3524 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
3530 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
3537 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
3545 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
3552 @c . {Syntactic details}
3553 @node Syntactic details
3554 @section Syntactic details
3555 @cindex Syntactic details
3557 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
3562 * Music expressions::
3563 * Manipulating music expressions::
3571 @subsection Top level
3574 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
3578 @subsubsection Score
3581 @cindex score definition
3583 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
3584 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
3587 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
3590 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
3591 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
3595 @c . {Default output}
3596 @subsubsection Default output
3598 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
3599 entering such a block at top-level.
3602 @subsubsection Header
3604 @cindex @code{\header}
3607 A header describes bibilographic information of the file's contents. It
3608 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
3609 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
3610 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
3611 metre, arranger, piece and tagline.
3613 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
3617 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1};
3618 @var{key2} = @var{val2}; @dots{} @}
3621 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
3623 @subsubsection Default output
3625 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top-level sets the default
3627 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
3631 @subsection Identifiers
3634 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is represented as a
3635 Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types (such as pair,
3636 number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of specialized data types,
3643 @item Translator_def
3647 @item Music_output_def
3648 @item Moment (rational number)
3651 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
3652 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
3653 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
3654 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
3655 during a lilypond run.
3658 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
3659 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
3660 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
3662 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
3663 not yet user accessible.
3664 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
3669 @node Music expressions
3670 @subsection Music expressions
3672 @cindex music expressions
3674 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
3675 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
3676 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
3677 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
3678 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
3679 quarter note @code{d}:
3682 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
3685 @cindex Sequential music
3686 @cindex @code{\sequential}
3687 @cindex sequential music
3690 @cindex Simultaneous music
3691 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
3693 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
3697 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
3698 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
3700 For both, there is a shorthand:
3702 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
3706 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
3708 for simultaneous music.
3709 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
3710 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
3711 are expressed in two different ways:
3713 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3714 \notes \context Voice {
3715 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
3716 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
3721 Other compound music expressions include
3724 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
3725 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
3726 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
3727 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
3731 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
3732 @node Manipulating music expressions
3733 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
3735 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
3736 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
3737 directly on it. The syntax is
3739 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
3741 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
3742 @var{func} should return a music expression.
3744 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
3745 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
3746 about how music is stored.
3748 #(define (testfunc x)
3749 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
3750 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
3752 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
3753 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
3758 \apply #testfunc { c4_"foo" }
3762 For more information on what is possible, see the @ref{Tricks} and the
3763 automatically generated documentation.
3766 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
3767 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
3772 @c . {Span requests}
3778 @subsubsection Span requests
3779 @cindex Span requests
3781 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
3782 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
3786 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
3790 @cindex @code{\start}
3791 @cindex @code{\stop}
3793 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
3794 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
3795 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
3796 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
3798 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3799 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
3800 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
3803 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
3804 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
3805 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
3806 file @file{spanners.ly}.
3811 @subsection Assignments
3814 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
3815 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
3816 and to refer to an identifier, you preceed its name with a backslash:
3817 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
3818 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
3819 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
3821 Semicolons are forbidden after top level assignments, but mandatory in
3822 other places. The rules about semicolons and assignments are very
3823 confusing, but when LilyPond input evolves more towards Scheme, we hope
3824 that this problem will grow smaller.
3826 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
3827 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
3828 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
3829 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
3831 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
3832 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
3833 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
3839 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
3840 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
3841 first item in a block.
3845 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
3849 \paperIdent % correct
3854 @c . {Lexical modes}
3856 @subsection Lexical modes
3857 @cindex Lexical modes
3860 @cindex @code{\notes}
3861 @cindex @code{\chords}
3862 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3864 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
3865 special input modes on top of the default mode: note, lyrics and chords
3866 mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted words are
3867 interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be interpreted as a
3868 C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp major triad
3871 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expressions
3873 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
3874 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
3875 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
3878 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
3879 meaning of their arguments. They are just a way to indicate that the
3880 arguments should be parsed in indicated mode. The modes are treated in
3881 more detail in the @ref{Note entry}, @ref{Lyrics} and
3884 You may nest different input modes.
3888 @subsection Ambiguities
3893 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
3897 @item The assignment
3903 can be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
3904 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
3905 containing the syllable `bar'.
3907 @item The assignment
3913 can be interpreted as making an integer identifier
3914 containing -6, or a Request identifier containing the
3915 fingering `6' (with neutral direction).
3917 @item If you do a nested repeat like
3929 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
3930 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
3931 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
3933 @item (an as yet unidentified ambiguity :-)
3937 @c . {Lexical details}
3938 @node Lexical details
3939 @section Lexical details
3941 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
3952 * Version information::
3957 @subsection Comments
3960 @cindex block comment
3961 @cindex line comment
3965 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
3966 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
3967 They cannot be nested.
3970 @subsection Direct Scheme
3974 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
3977 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
3978 internal use. In some places Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
3979 whereever it is allowed,
3983 evaluates the specified Scheme code. If this is used at toplevel, then
3984 the result is discarded. Example:
3986 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
3989 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
3990 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
3991 an integer (namely, 3).
3993 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
3994 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
3995 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
4000 @subsection Keywords
4004 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
4005 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
4008 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
4009 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
4010 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
4011 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
4012 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
4013 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
4014 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
4015 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
4016 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
4021 @subsection Integers
4029 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
4030 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
4035 @cindex real numbers
4041 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
4042 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
4043 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
4044 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
4045 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
4053 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
4054 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
4055 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
4056 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
4064 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
4065 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
4066 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
4067 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. See
4068 @ref{Lexical modes} for details on unquoted strings; their
4069 interpretation varies depending on the situation. Strings can be
4070 concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
4072 The tokenizer accepts the following commands. They have no grammatical
4073 function, hence they can appear anywhere in the input.
4077 @subsection Main input
4080 @cindex @code{\maininput}
4082 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
4083 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
4085 @node File inclusion
4086 @subsection File inclusion
4087 @cindex @code{\include}
4089 \include @var{filename}
4092 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
4093 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
4094 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
4097 @node Version information
4098 @subsection Version information
4099 @cindex @code{\version}
4101 \version @var{string} ;
4104 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
4105 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
4106 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
4107 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
4108 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
4117 @c .{Local emacs vars}
4120 @c minor-mode: font-lock
4121 @c minor-mode: outline
4122 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
4123 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
4124 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
4125 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
4126 @c outline-override-protect: t