4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @nodes
5 @c Run M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus
7 @c before saving changes
11 @unnumberedsubsec Bugs
16 @c .{Reference Manual}
18 @node Reference Manual
19 @chapter Reference Manual
21 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
22 revision of this document was for LilyPond 1.3.138.
44 * Interpretation context::
54 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
55 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
56 program print musical symbols, it also makes esthetic decisions.
57 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
58 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
59 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
61 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension. The
62 Scheme library provides the glue that holds together the low-level
63 routines and separate modules general, which are C++
65 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
67 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
68 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
69 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
70 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
71 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
72 order in which notes are played.
75 in this step, the results of the interpretation, a typesetting
76 specification, is solved.
78 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") is written to the output file.
81 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
82 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
83 interpretation, @strong{context} is constructed, and with this context
84 af network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. The
85 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
86 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
87 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
90 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
91 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
92 design of the program. This manual is ordered in terms of user
93 tasks. With each concept will be explained to which of the three parts
102 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
103 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
104 brevity we omit obligotary lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
105 @code{\paper} declarations.
110 * Defining pitch names::
113 * Easy Notation note heads ::
126 @cindex Note specification
128 @cindex entering notes
130 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
132 @cindex @code{\pitch}
134 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
137 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
139 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
140 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
141 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
142 from @code{c}, to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
143 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
145 @cindex note names, Dutch
147 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
148 name. A flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
149 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
150 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
151 both forms are accepted.
153 LilyPond has predefined sets of notenames for various other languages.
154 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
155 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
156 the names they define are:
159 Note Names sharp flat
160 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
161 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
162 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
163 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
164 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
165 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
166 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
174 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
175 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
176 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
177 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
179 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
180 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
183 @c . {Defining pitch names}
184 @node Defining pitch names
185 @subsection Defining pitch names
187 @cindex defining pitch names
188 @cindex pitch names, defining
190 Note names and chord modifiers can be customised for nationalities. The
191 syntax is as follows.
193 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
194 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
196 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
197 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
200 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
201 specific examples how to do this.
207 @subsection Durations
211 @cindex @code{\duration}
213 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
215 \duration @var{scmduration}
217 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type Duration. See
218 @ref{Duration} for more information.
221 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
222 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
223 longer than a whole note, use identifiers.
229 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
231 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
237 \notes \relative c'' {
238 a\longa a\breve \autoBeamOff
239 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
241 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
246 \remove "Clef_engraver";
247 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver";
248 \remove "Time_signature_engraver";
249 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver";
256 As you can see, the longa is not printed. To get a longa note head, you
257 have to use a mensural note heads. This is done accomplished by setting
258 the @code{style} property of the NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}.
260 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
261 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
262 duration can be followed by a dot (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
266 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
272 You can alter the length of duration by appending
273 `@code{*}@var{fraction}'. This will not affect the appearance of the
274 notes or rests produced.
280 A note specification has the form
283 @var{pitch}[@var{octavespec}][!][?][@var{duration}]
286 LilyPond will determine what accidentals to typeset depending on the key
287 and context. The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether
288 an accidental is printed. A reminder accidental
289 @cindex reminder accidental
291 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
292 cautionary accidental,
293 @cindex cautionary accidental
294 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
295 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
297 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
298 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
302 @node Easy Notation note heads
303 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
305 @cindex easy notation
308 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
309 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
310 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
312 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
313 \include "paper26.ly"
315 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
316 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
320 Note that @code{EasyNotation} overrides a @code{Score} context. You
321 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it better
327 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
328 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
329 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond will produce the desired result.
339 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
340 with chords, it connects all of the note heads whose pitches match.
341 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'.
342 If you try to tie together chords which have no common pitches, a
343 warning message will appear and no ties will be created.
345 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
346 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
349 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
350 @code{Thread.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
352 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
353 \property Thread.sparseTies = ##t
354 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
357 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
358 to the augmentation dot: the following example are three ways of notating
359 exactly the same concept.
360 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
366 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
367 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
368 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
370 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
371 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into Thread
372 context and turning off ties per Thread.
380 @cindex @code{\times}
382 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying their duration
385 @cindex @code{\times}
387 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
390 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
391 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
392 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
393 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
394 their written length:
396 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
397 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
400 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long brackets
401 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
402 @code{\times} only once. This saves typing work when you must make lots
405 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
406 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
407 \times 2/3 { c''8 c c c c c }
415 Rests are entered like notes, with note name `@code{r}'.
425 \skip @var{duration} @code{;}
430 Skips the amount of time specified by @var{duration}. If no other music
431 is played, a gap will be left for the skipped time with no notes
432 printed. The short hand is only available in Note and Chord mode.
437 @subsection Note mode
442 @cindex @code{\notes}
444 Note mode is the lexical mode generally used for inputting notes. The
450 This instructs the tokenizer to interpret @var{expr} in note mode. If a
451 a sequence of alfabetical characters, like @code{foobar}, LilyPond first
452 checks if @code{foobar} is a pitch name. If it is not a pitch name,
453 then it is treated as a string.
455 Numbers and dots indicate durations, so you can enter floating point
456 numbers in this mode.
460 @section Staff notation
462 @cindex Staff notation
472 @subsection Key signature
477 Changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key} command.
479 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type} @code{;}
482 @cindex @code{\minor}
483 @cindex @code{\major}
484 @cindex @code{\minor}
485 @cindex @code{\ionian}
486 @cindex @code{\locrian}
487 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
488 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
489 @cindex @code{\lydian}
490 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
491 @cindex @code{\dorian}
493 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
494 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively. The second
495 argument is optional; the default is major keys. The @var{\context}
496 argument can also be given as an integer, which tells the number of
497 semitones that should be added to the pitch given in the subsequent
498 @code{\key} commands to get the corresponding major key, e.g.,
499 @code{\minor} is defined as 3. The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
500 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
501 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
503 This command sets context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
505 @cindex @code{keySignature}
508 @subsection Clef changes
511 \clef @var{clefname} @code{;}
517 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
518 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
519 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra pitch of clefname}
522 Supported clef-names include
525 @item treble, violin, G, G2: G clef on 2nd line
526 @item french: G clef on 1st line
527 @item soprano: C clef on 1st line
528 @item mezzosoprano: C clef on 2nd line
529 @item alto: C clef on 3rd line
530 @item tenor: C clef on 4th line
531 @item baritone: C clef on 5th line
532 @item varbaritone: F clef on 3rd line
533 @item bass, F: F clef on 4th line
534 @item subbass: F clef on 5th line
535 @item percussion: percussion clef
538 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
541 @item clefs-C: modern style C clef
542 @item clefs-F: modern style F clef
543 @item clefs-G: modern style G clef
544 @item clefs-vaticana_do: Editio Vaticana style do clef
545 @item clefs-vaticana_fa: Editio Vaticana style fa clef
546 @item clefs-medicaea_do: Editio Medicaea style do clef
547 @item clefs-medicaea_fa: Editio Medicaea style fa clef
548 @item clefs-mensural1_c: modern style mensural C clef
549 @item clefs-mensural2_c: historic style small mensural C clef
550 @item clefs-mensural3_c: historic style big mensural C clef
551 @item clefs-mensural1_f: historic style traditional mensural F clef
552 @item clefs-mensural2_f: historic style new mensural F clef
553 @item clefs-mensural_g: historic style mensural G clef
554 @item clefs-hufnagel_do: historic style hufnagel do clef
555 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa: historic style hufnagel fa clef
556 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa: historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
557 @item clefs-percussion: modern style percussion clef
560 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
561 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
562 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
565 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
566 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
567 @cindex hufnagel clefs
570 @c . {Time signature}
572 @subsection Time signature
573 @cindex Time signature
577 The time signature is changed by the @code{\time} command. Syntax:
579 \time @var{numerator}@code{/}@var{denominator} @code{;}
581 Internally, this is a short-cut for doing
583 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{numerator} . @var{denominator})
586 [TODO: discuss options for layout]
593 @cindex partial measure
594 @cindex measure, partial
595 @cindex shorten measures
596 @cindex @code{\partial}
598 Partial measures are entered using the @code{\partial} command:
600 \partial @var{duration} @code{;}
603 Internally, this is a short cut for
606 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
612 @subsection Bar lines
616 @cindex measure lines
623 This is a short-cut for doing
625 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
628 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
629 @ref{Repeats}, and the documentation of @code{whichBar} in the generated
633 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
635 @cindex repeatCommands
636 @cindex defaultBarType
638 Bar lines are created by the @code{Bar_line_engraver}. That engraver examines
639 @code{whichBar} at every moment. Whenever it is set to a string, it will
640 create a bar with that type. @code{whichBar} is usually set
641 automatically: at the start of a measure it is set to
642 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} is used to
643 override default measure bars.
645 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
646 @code{\bar ; }. These settings take precedence over automatic @code{whichBar}
655 [TODO: collisions, rest-collisinos, voiceX identifiers, how to
656 which contexts to instantiate. some small examples? ]
660 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
661 @item @code{\shiftOff}
662 Disable horizontal shifting of note heads that collide.
664 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
665 @item @code{\shiftOn}
666 Enable note heads that collide with other note heads to be
667 shifted horiztonally. Also @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn}
668 set different shift values.
670 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
671 @item @code{\stemBoth}
672 Allow stems and beams to point either upwards or
673 downwards, decided automatically by LilyPond.
675 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
676 @item @code{\stemDown}
677 Force stems and beams to point down.
679 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
681 Force stems and beams to point up.
684 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
685 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
686 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
687 Similarly, for slurs use
691 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
692 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
693 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
699 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
700 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
701 @cindex @code{\voiceThree}
702 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
703 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
704 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
705 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
707 If two voices sharing one staff have the same stem directions, their
708 note heads may collide. You can shift the note heads of one voice by
709 setting @code{\shiftOn}. This can be undone by setting
712 For simple polyphonic music, shorthands are available that combine
713 directions and shift settings: @code{\voiceOne}, @code{\voiceTwo},
714 @code{\voiceThree}, @code{\voiceFour} and @code{\oneVoice}.
720 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
721 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted, but if
722 you're not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can either instruct
723 lilypond which patterns to beam automatically. In specific cases, you
724 can also specify explicitly what to beam and what not.
727 @c . {Automatic beams}
728 @subsection Automatic beams
730 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
731 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
732 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
734 A large number of Voice properties are used to decide how to generate
735 beams. Their default values appear in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
737 By default, automatic beams can start on any note@footnote{In exotic
738 time signatures such as 1/8 and 1/16 this is not true} but can only end
739 in a few positions within the measure: they can end on a beat, or at
740 durations specified by the properties in
741 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
742 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
744 The syntax for changing the value @code{autoBeamSettings} is set using
745 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
747 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{N} @var{M} @var{P} @var{Q}) = @var{dur}
748 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{N} @var{M} @var{P} @var{Q})
750 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
751 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
752 @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time signature (@code{* *} may be entered to
753 designate all time signatures), @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of
754 the beamed notes (@code{* *} designate notes of any length).
756 If you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note, you can
759 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
760 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
762 The duration a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note. It is entered as
763 @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
765 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
766 example, you automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
768 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
769 #'(begin * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
771 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
772 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
773 3/8 has passed within the measure).
775 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
776 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
777 replacing the first asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
778 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
780 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
781 #'(begin 6 8 * *) = ...
784 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
785 second pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
786 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
787 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end * * 1
790 [say something about irregular meters. eg 5/8 = 2+3/8, 3+2/8]
792 Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
794 @cindex automatic beam generation
796 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
798 Automatic beaming is on by default, but it can switched off by setting
799 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
800 a melody that goes with lyrics.
803 @cindex Automatic beams
804 @subsection Manual beams
805 @cindex beams, manual
809 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
810 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
811 rests or bar lines, so if you want that, specify the begin and end point
812 manually using @code{[} and @code{]}:
815 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
817 r4 [r8 g'' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
820 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the auto beam will not produce
823 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
825 If you have specific wishes for the number of beams, you can fully
826 control the number of beams through the properties
827 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}.
829 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
832 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
836 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
838 The beam symbol can be tweaked through @code{Voice.Beam}'s
839 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position},
842 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
845 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
846 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
847 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
852 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
853 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
856 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
857 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #2
858 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-2
862 @cindex @code{default-neutral-direction}
864 @node Expressive marks
865 @section Expressive marks
880 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}. In
881 lilypond, they are entered using parentheses:
882 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
883 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
887 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are attached to note heads whenever
888 possible. In some instances involving beams slurs may be attached to a
889 stem end. If you want to override this layout you can do this through
890 @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{attachment}:
892 Maybe reinclude other slur features and move back to tricks? Esp. the
893 second example, how to fix, can be very helpful.
896 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
897 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
898 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
900 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
905 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
906 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
907 stems might look better:
910 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
911 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
912 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
914 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
920 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
921 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
922 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
923 is in @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
924 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
925 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
926 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
927 express this by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
929 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
930 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
931 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
932 c'16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
934 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
940 The definition for @code{beautiful} is vague, the default setting is
941 experimental computer science.
943 @cindex Adusting slurs
946 @subsection Phrasing slur
948 @cindex phrasing slur
949 @cindex phrasing mark
951 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
952 indicate a musical sentence. It is entered using @code{\(} and
955 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
956 \time 6/4; c''\((d)e f(e)\)d
959 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
960 slur. The grob associated with it is @code{Voice.PhrasingSlur}.
963 @subsection Breath marks
965 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}:
967 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
971 Currently, only tick marks are supported, comma style breath marks are
972 not. The grob for this object is called @code{Voice.BreathingSign}.
977 Currently, only tick marks are supported, comma style breath marks are
985 @cindex beats per minute
986 @cindex metronome marking
988 @cindex @code{\tempo}
990 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute} @code{;}
993 Used to specify the tempo. For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76;} requests
994 output with 76 quarter notes per minute.
998 The tempo setting is not printed, but is currently only used in the MIDI
1004 @subsection Text spanner
1005 @cindex Text spanner
1007 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando, accelerando, often extend
1008 over a many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1009 dotted line. You can create such texts in LilyPond using
1010 text spanners. The syntax is as follows:
1012 \spanrequest \start "text"
1013 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1015 LilyPond will respond by creating a @code{Voice.TextSpanner} grob. The
1016 string to be printed, as well as the style is set through grob
1019 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1020 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1021 \relative c' { a'''' b c a
1022 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1023 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1024 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1025 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1026 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1042 @subsection Articulation
1043 @cindex Articulation
1045 @cindex articulations
1049 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1050 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1051 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1052 are defined in @file{script.ly} and @file{script.scm}. Symbols can be
1053 forced to appear above or below the note by writing
1054 `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}'
1055 respectively. Here is a chart showing symbols above notes, with the
1056 name of the corresponding symbol appearing underneath.
1061 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =
1063 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1064 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''-\fermata
1065 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1066 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1067 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1068 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1069 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1070 c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1072 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1073 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1074 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1075 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1076 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1077 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1078 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1079 thumb__ segno__ coda
1083 linewidth = 5.875\in;
1089 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1090 @lilypond[singleline]
1092 \notes \context Voice {
1093 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1094 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1100 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1107 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand.
1108 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1109 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1113 @cindex @code{\script}
1122 Defines a script printing request. The argument is a string which
1123 points into the script-alias table defined in @file{scm/script.scm}.
1124 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1125 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1127 For information on how to add scripts, consult @file{scm/script.scm}.
1132 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1133 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1135 Unfortunately, there is no support adding fingering instructions or
1136 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1137 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1142 @subsection Text scripts
1143 @cindex Text scripts
1145 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1146 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1147 @code{c^"text"}. The text is typeset in italic by default.
1149 The amount of space taken by these indications by default does not
1150 influence, spacing, but setting @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} to true will
1151 take the widths into account. The identifier @code{\fattext} is defined
1152 in the standard includes.
1153 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1154 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1157 Text scripts are created in form of @code{Voice.TextScript} grobs.
1159 For purposes of defining identifiers, a more verbose form also exists:
1162 \textscript @var{text}
1165 Defines a text to be printed over or under a note. @var{text} is a
1166 string or a markup text.
1170 foo = \textscript #'(finger "6")
1177 This is equivalent to @code{c4-6 c4-"foo"}.
1182 @subsection Grace notes
1191 @cindex @code{\grace}
1194 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1196 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1197 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1198 The syntax is as follows.
1200 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1203 When grace music is interpreted, a score-within-a-score is set up:
1204 @var{musicexpr} has its own time bookkeeping, and you could (for
1205 example) have a separate time signature within grace notes. While in
1206 this score-within-a-score, you can create notes, beams, slurs, etc.
1207 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1208 stem. This behavior can be controlled with the
1209 @code{Stem}.@code{flag-style} property.
1212 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1214 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1215 \grace { \property Grace.Stem \override #'flag-style = ##f c16 } c4
1222 At present, nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following
1223 may cause run-time errors:
1225 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1227 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1228 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1229 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1230 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1231 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1234 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1235 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1236 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1240 The present implementation of grace notes is not robust and generally
1241 kludgy. We expect it to change after LilyPond 1.4. Syntax changes might
1242 also be implemented.
1255 @subsubsection Glissando
1258 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1260 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to a
1264 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1271 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1278 @subsubsection Dynamics
1291 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1301 Absolute dynamic marks are specified by using an identifier after a
1302 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1303 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1304 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1305 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1308 @cindex Crescendo and Decrescendo
1312 @cindex @code{\decr}
1313 @cindex @code{\rced}
1319 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1320 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1321 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1322 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1323 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1324 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1325 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1326 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1327 want to get several marks during one note, you must use spacer notes.
1329 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1330 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1331 < f''1 { s4 \< \! s2 \> \! s4 } >
1336 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1337 is an example how to do it:
1339 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1341 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1342 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1358 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1360 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1361 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1362 different variants of repeats.
1366 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1370 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1371 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1374 Alternative endings are written stacked. Which is unfortunately not
1375 practical for anything right now.
1381 Make measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1387 * Manual repeat commands::
1389 * Tremolo subdivision::
1394 @subsection Repeat syntax
1396 The syntax for repeats is
1399 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1402 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1403 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1405 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1407 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1409 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1411 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1412 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1414 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1415 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1418 With alternative endings:
1420 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1422 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1423 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1427 Folded repeats look like this:@footnote{Folded repeats offer little
1428 more over simultaneous music. However, it is to be expected that
1429 more functionality -- especially for the MIDI backend -- will be
1430 implemented at some point in the future.}
1433 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1435 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1436 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1442 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1443 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1444 the specified number of repeats.
1447 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1451 \repeat volta 3 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1452 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1460 As you can see, LilyPond doesn't remember the timing information, nor
1461 are slurs or ties repeated, so you have to reset timing information
1462 after a repeat, e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}),
1463 @code{Score.measurePosition} or @code{\partial}. We hope to fix this
1466 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}, although it probably is only
1467 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1469 @node Manual repeat commands
1470 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1472 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1474 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1475 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1483 @item (volta . @var{text})
1484 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1486 Stop a running volta bracket
1489 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1491 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1493 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1498 @node Tremolo repeats
1499 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1500 @cindex tremolo beams
1502 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1504 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1506 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1507 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1508 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1509 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1510 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1518 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1519 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1521 @node Tremolo subdivision
1522 @subsection Tremolo subdivision
1523 @cindex tremolo marks
1524 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1526 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1527 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1528 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1529 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1530 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1532 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1535 Using this mechanism pays off when you entering many tremolos, since the
1536 default argument saves a lot of typing.
1541 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1544 @node Measure repeats
1545 @subsection Measure repeats
1547 @cindex percent repeats
1548 @cindex measure repeats
1550 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1551 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1553 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1554 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 5 { c'1 } }
1557 At present, only repeats of whole measures are supported.
1559 @node Rhythmic music
1560 @section Rhythmic music
1567 @node Rhythmic staffs
1568 @subsection Rhythmic staffs
1570 Some times you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1571 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1572 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1574 @lilypond[fragment,relative ]
1575 \context RhythmicStaff {
1577 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1584 @section Piano music
1586 Piano music is an odd type of notation: two staffs are largely
1587 independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the two staffs. The
1588 @code{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1589 behavior. In this section we discuss the @code{PianoStaff} and some
1590 other pianistic peculiarities.
1593 * Automatic staff changes::
1594 * Manual staff switches::
1601 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1602 @node Automatic staff changes
1603 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1604 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1606 Voices can be switched from top to bottom staff automatically. The
1609 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1611 This will switch notation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1612 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1613 @code{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1614 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1615 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1617 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1618 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1619 \context Staff = "up" {
1620 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1621 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1622 \context Staff = "down" {
1628 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1629 terminating too soon.
1632 @node Manual staff switches
1633 @subsection Manual staff switches
1635 @cindex manual staff switches
1636 @cindex staff switch, manual
1638 Voices can be switched between staffs manually, using the following command:
1640 \translator Staff = @var{which} @var{music}
1642 The string @var{which} is the name of the staff. Typically it is
1643 @code{"up"} or @code{"down"}.
1645 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating that the
1646 context which is a direct child of the a context of type
1647 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1648 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1650 @cindex @code{\translator}
1652 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1661 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1662 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaChorda},
1663 @code{\treChorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1665 These identifiers are short hands for spanner commands of the types
1666 @code{Sustain}, @code{UnaChorda} and @code{Sostenuto}:
1668 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1669 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1672 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1673 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1674 types. Refer to the generated documentation for more information.
1679 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (ie. *Ped
1685 @subsection Arpeggio
1688 @cindex broken arpeggio
1689 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1691 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1692 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1696 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1697 \context Voice <c'\arpeggio e g c>
1701 When an arpeggio crosses staffs in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1702 to the chords in both staffs, and set
1703 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1706 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1707 \context PianoStaff <
1708 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1709 \context Voice = one { <c''\arpeggio e g c> }
1710 \context Voice = other { \clef bass; <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1715 This command creates @code{Arpeggio} grobs.
1719 It is not possible to mix
1720 connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios at the same time.
1723 @c . {VoiceFollower}
1725 @subsection VoiceFollower
1727 @cindex follow voice
1728 @cindex staff switching
1731 @cindex @code{followVoice}
1733 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
1734 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
1735 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
1738 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1739 \context PianoStaff <
1740 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
1741 \context Staff \context Voice {
1743 \translator Staff=two
1746 \context Staff=two {\clef bass; \skip 1*2;}
1760 * Automatic syllable durations::
1766 @subsection Lyrics mode
1769 To print lyrics in LilyPond, you must first make a music expression from
1770 the lyric text. When they're in a music expression, that music
1771 expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate context. We shall
1772 discuss lyric printing in this order.
1776 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
1778 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
1779 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
1780 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
1781 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
1783 The precise definition of this mode is in @ref{Lyrics mode
1784 definition}. The definition itself is ludicrous, and this will remain so
1785 until the authors of LilyPond acquire a deeper understanding of
1786 character encoding, or someone else steps up to fix this.
1788 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
1789 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
1790 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
1793 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes
1794 (@code{"}) or by using an underscore without quotes: @code{He_could4
1795 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to spaces.
1797 @c . {Printing lyrics}
1798 @node Printing lyrics
1799 @subsection Printing lyrics
1802 Normally, you will want to have notes and syllables matched
1803 automatically. This is accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is
1804 documented in @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting
1805 @code{automaticMelismata} in the melody staff, will cause slurs to be
1806 interpreted as melismata. Lyric syllables must be interpreted within a
1807 @code{Lyrics} context in order to printing them.
1809 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1810 \addlyrics \notes \relative c' {
1812 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
1815 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1817 share the so -- ftware; }
1821 @cindex lyric extender
1824 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
1825 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
1826 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
1827 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
1831 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
1832 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
1833 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
1834 will result in a hyphen which length varies depending on the space
1835 between syllables, and which will be centered between the syllables.
1837 @cindex Lyric hyphen
1839 @node Automatic syllable durations
1840 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
1841 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
1843 @cindex automatic lyric durations
1844 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
1846 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can import the rhythm
1847 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
1850 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
1853 This means that both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are
1854 interpreted, but that every non-command atomic music expression
1855 (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted using timing
1856 of @var{musicexpr1}.
1857 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
1859 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
1860 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
1863 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1866 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
1867 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
1869 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1873 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
1874 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
1875 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
1877 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
1879 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
1880 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
1882 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
1883 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
1886 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
1887 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
1888 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
1890 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1893 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
1895 \context Lyrics \lyrics
1900 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
1901 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
1904 @subsection More stanzas
1908 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the separate
1909 syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can do this if
1910 you explain it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
1912 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
1913 to name starting with that identity. In the following example, the Voice
1914 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
1915 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
1918 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1921 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4;
1923 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
1924 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
1925 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
1926 Hi, my name is bert. }
1927 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
1928 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
1929 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
1934 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
1935 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems.
1937 @cindex stanza numbering
1945 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
1946 a harmonic device that is characterized by a set of pitches. It is
1947 something different from simultaneous music, although you can express a
1948 chord using simultaneous music. In fact, chords are internally stored as
1949 simultaneous music expressions. This means you can enter chords by name,
1950 and print them as note head, or enter as notes and print as chord names:
1953 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1954 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
1964 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
1965 \context Staff \twoWays > }
1968 Note that this example also shows that the LilyPond chord does not
1969 attempt to be intelligent, if you enter @code{f bes d}, it does no
1970 attempt to find out whether it this is an inversion.
1974 * Printing named chords::
1979 @subsection Chords mode
1982 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
1983 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
1984 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
1985 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
1987 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
1988 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
1990 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
1993 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
1996 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration}
1997 is the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
1998 modifiers. One type is @emph{chord additions}, which are obtained by
1999 listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written by its
2000 number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising or
2001 lowering by half a step. Chord additions has two effects: It adds
2002 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2003 chord, and it may lower or raise the specified interval. Intervals
2004 must be separated by a dot (@code{.}).
2006 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2007 using @code{\transpose}.
2012 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2016 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5- c:4.6.8
2028 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2029 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2030 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2031 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2032 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2033 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2034 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2038 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2041 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2049 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2050 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2053 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2062 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2063 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2064 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the
2065 specified note is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2067 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2077 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2078 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2079 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2080 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2082 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2094 @c . {Printing named chords}
2095 @node Printing named chords
2096 @subsection Printing named chords
2098 @cindex printing chord names
2101 @cindex @code{ChordNames}
2104 For displaying printed chord names, use the @code{ChordNames} context.
2105 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2106 directly using simultaneous music.
2109 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2111 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2115 \context ChordNames \scheme
2116 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2122 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting property
2123 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2124 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of the
2130 c1:m \break c:m c:m c:m d
2135 \context ChordNames {
2136 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2138 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2143 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2144 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2145 added base, which may result in strange chord names when chords are
2146 entered as a list of pitches:
2151 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2160 \context ChordNamesVoice \scheme
2161 \context Staff \scheme
2168 By default LilyPond uses chord name system proposed by Harald Banter
2169 (See @ref{Literature}). The system is is unambiguous and has a logical
2170 structure. Typical American style chord names may be selected by
2171 setting the @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName}
2172 grob to @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz
2175 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2176 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2177 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}.
2179 [3 short examples showing differences between american, banter and jazz]
2182 @section Writing parts
2184 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2185 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2186 problems in orchestral music.
2193 * Instrument names::
2195 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2196 * Multi measure rests::
2197 * Automatic part combining::
2198 * Hara-kiri staffs::
2201 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2202 @node Rehearsal marks
2203 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2204 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2206 @cindex @code{\mark}
2207 @cindex @code{Mark_engraver}
2210 \mark @var{unsigned};
2215 With this command, you can print a rehearsal mark above the system. You
2216 can provide a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If there is
2217 no argument, the property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically
2220 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2226 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno") ;
2232 @subsection Bar numbers
2234 Bar numbers are printed at the start of the line by default. This is
2235 done by the @code{Bar_number_engraver} in the Score context.
2239 It is currently not possible to make boxed bar numbers, or print them at
2243 @node Instrument names
2244 @subsection Instrument names
2246 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2247 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2248 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2249 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2251 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2253 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 } }
2255 \translator { \StaffContext
2256 \consists "Instrument_name_engraver"; } } }
2259 This requires that you add the @code{Instrument_name_engraver} to the
2264 @subsection Transpose
2266 @cindex transposition of pitches
2267 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2269 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2272 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2275 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2278 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2279 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2280 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2284 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2287 { \key e \major; c d e f }
2289 \transpose des'' { \key e \major; c d e f }
2290 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major; c d e f }
2296 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2297 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2298 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2300 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2301 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2303 When you want to play a score containing transposed and untransposed
2304 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2305 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2306 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2308 @cindex @code{transposing}
2311 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2312 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2316 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2317 @node Multi measure rests
2318 @subsection Multi measure rests
2319 @cindex Multi measure rests
2323 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2324 meant for entering parts: the rest can expand to fill a score with
2325 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2326 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2327 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2330 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2331 \time 3/4; R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2334 Currently, there is no way to condense multiple rests into a single
2337 @cindex condensing rests
2339 @node Automatic part combining
2340 @subsection Automatic part combining
2341 @cindex automatic part combining
2342 @cindex part combiner
2344 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto on
2345 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting Hymns
2346 and orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2347 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, stem
2348 directions are set automatically. Also, soli and @emph{a due} parts can be
2349 identified and marke.
2351 The syntax for part combining is
2354 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2357 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2358 combined into one context @var{context}. The names of the music
2359 expressions must start with the prefixes @code{one} and @code{two}.
2361 [Name of music expressions? is that context name? ]
2363 The most useful function of the part combiner to combining threads into
2364 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2366 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2368 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2369 \context Thread=one \notes\relative c'' {
2372 \context Thread=two \notes\relative c'' {
2378 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2379 specified twice (once in each Thread). Also note that stem, slur and tie
2380 directions are set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or
2381 unisono. The Thread called @code{one} always gets up stems, and "solo",
2382 while @code{two} always gets down stems and "Solo II".
2384 If you just want the splitting of Threads and setting of directions, and
2385 not the textual markings, you may set the property @var{soloADue} to
2386 false. There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak
2387 the behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2388 documentation. Look for @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2389 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2391 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2392 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2393 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2395 @node Hara-kiri staffs
2396 @subsection Hara-kiri staffs
2401 @footnote{Harakiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2402 the Japanese Samourai warriors.}
2412 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for "guard") is a
2413 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2414 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2415 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2416 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2421 \notes { c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d' }
2425 \consists Custos_engraver;
2426 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural;
2433 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th century.
2434 There were different appearences for different notation styles.
2435 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2436 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2439 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2440 @code{StaffContext} when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2441 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2442 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2443 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2450 \consists Custos_engraver;
2451 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural;
2456 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2461 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2462 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2466 @c . {Tuning output}
2468 @section Tuning output
2470 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2471 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2472 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2473 ways to do just that.
2475 Notation output is specified in so called grobs (graphic objects). Each
2476 grob carries with it a set of properties (grob properties) specific to
2477 that object. For example, a stem grob has properties that specify its
2478 direction, length and thickness.
2481 The most common way of tuning the output is to alter the values of these
2482 properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can temporarily
2483 change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus affecting a whole
2484 set of objects. Second, you can select one specific object, and set a
2488 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2489 * Tuning per grob ::
2494 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2495 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2497 @cindex grob description
2499 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a context
2500 property. By assigning to that property (using plain @code{\property}),
2501 you can change the resulting grobs.
2503 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2504 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'meta = #'((interfaces . ())) c'4
2507 The @code{\property} statement effectively empties the definition of the
2508 Stem object. One of the effects is that property specifying how it
2509 should be printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible.
2515 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2516 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2517 mechanism: you can add a property on top of an existing definition, or
2518 remove a property: @code{\override} adds a settings, @code{\revert}
2519 removes that setting.
2522 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2523 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2527 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
2528 list. Since it is singly linked, we can treat it as a stack, and
2529 @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
2530 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding automatic
2533 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2534 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2535 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
2536 including crashes. In other words, if you use @code{\override} and
2537 @code{\revert}, be sure to balance the overrides and reverts.
2539 If balancing them is too much work, use the @code{\set} shorthand. It
2540 performs a revert followed by an override:
2542 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #2.0
2545 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2547 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2548 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2549 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2551 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2552 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2556 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
2560 @node Tuning per grob
2561 @subsection Tuning per grob
2563 @cindex \outputproperty
2565 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
2567 Syntax is as follows
2569 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2571 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
2572 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
2573 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
2574 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
2575 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
2577 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
2578 the appropriate context to apply this to.
2580 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
2581 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
2583 Here are some random examples:
2585 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
2587 \context Staff \outputproperty
2588 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
2589 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
2593 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
2595 This selects all note heads occurring at current staff level, and sets
2596 the @code{extra-offset} of those heads to @code{(0.5,0.75)}, shifting
2599 Move the text "m.d.", but not the fingering instruction "2".
2600 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2601 #(define (make-text-checker text)
2602 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
2605 \notes\relative c''' {
2606 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
2607 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
2608 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
2618 @subsection What to tune?
2620 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but what variables are there? The
2621 question is not answered in this manual (although you may encounter
2624 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
2625 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables are part
2626 of the generated documentation: this documentation is generated from the
2627 sourcecode of lily for each version, so it is usually mch more up to
2628 date than this manual. It should be available from the same place where
2629 you got this manual.
2631 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
2634 which grob to modify
2636 which property to modify
2638 which context the grob comes from.
2641 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
2642 of grobs. Each one can be clicked, taking you to a overview of the
2643 available properties.
2645 There is also a master list of contexts. Clicking each takes you to an
2646 overview of the context, listing which grob types are created there.
2651 @subsection Text markup
2655 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
2656 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
2657 in the following way.
2662 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2665 c^#'(upright "upright")
2666 c_#'((bold upright) "bold")
2667 d^#'(lines "one" ((bold upright) "two"))
2668 e_#'(music (named "noteheads-2" "flags-u3"))
2672 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
2673 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
2676 text: string | (head? text+)
2677 head: markup | (markup+)
2678 markup-item: property | abbrev | @var{fontstyle}
2679 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
2680 abbrev: @code{rows lines roman music bold italic named super sub text}
2683 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
2684 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
2685 pair is a grob property.
2687 The following abbreviations are currently
2692 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
2694 vertical mode: set every text on new line
2704 lookup by character name
2706 plain text lookup (by character value)
2713 @var{fontstyle} may be any of @code{finger volta timesig mmrest mark
2714 script large Large dynamic}
2716 [wat is het verschil tussen fontstyle en abbrev?]
2719 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
2720 avoided because this makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
2721 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
2722 commands won't work with direct postscript output.
2726 @section Page layout
2740 @subsection Paper block
2743 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
2744 music notation. The syntax is
2747 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
2750 where each of the items is one of
2753 @item An assignment. The assignment must be terminated by a
2756 @item A context definition. See @ref{Notation Contexts} for
2757 more information on context definitions.
2759 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
2761 \stylesheet @var{alist}
2764 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
2765 @item an \elementdescriptions declaration.
2767 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
2769 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
2773 @c . {Paper variables}
2774 @node Paper variables
2775 @subsection Paper variables
2776 @cindex Paper variables
2778 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
2781 @cindex @code{indent}
2783 The indentation of the first line of music.
2784 @cindex @code{staffspace}
2786 @item @code{staffspace}
2787 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
2788 of the lines. If you want scale independent output, then you should
2789 use either this or @code{stafflinethickness}
2790 as a unit for distances you modify.
2792 @cindex @code{linewidth}
2793 @item @code{linewidth}
2794 Sets the width of the lines.
2796 If set to a negative value, a single
2797 unjustified line is produced.
2799 @cindex @code{textheight}
2801 @item @code{textheight}
2802 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
2805 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
2807 @item @code{interscoreline}
2808 Sets the spacing between systems.
2810 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
2814 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
2815 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
2816 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
2817 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
2822 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
2824 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
2825 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
2826 parameter for other line thicknesses.
2833 @subsection Font size
2836 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
2837 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
2838 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
2839 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
2841 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
2842 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
2843 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
2844 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
2845 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
2846 @code{\paper} block is also set.
2848 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
2849 details, see the file @file{font.scm}.
2855 @subsection Paper size
2860 @cindex @code{papersize}
2862 To change the paper size, you must first set the
2863 @code{papersize} variable at top level. Set it to
2864 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
2865 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
2866 the default font, then use the 20 point font. The new paper size will
2867 not take effect if the font is not loaded and selected afterwards.
2871 \include "paper16.ly"
2875 \paper @{ \paperSixteen @}
2879 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
2880 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
2891 @subsection Line break
2894 @cindex breaking lines
2896 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
2897 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
2900 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
2901 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
2902 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
2903 are barlines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
2904 barline, you can force an invisible barline by entering @code{\bar "";}.
2906 Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
2908 @cindex @code{\penalty}
2910 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
2911 the penalty command:
2913 \penalty @var{int} @code{;}
2916 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
2921 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
2922 command is rather kludgy, and slated for rewriting.
2926 @subsection Page break
2929 @cindex breaking pages
2932 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
2933 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
2934 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. For more
2935 details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
2946 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
2947 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, tieing,
2948 etc., but it is good enough for proof-hearing the music you enter.
2950 Dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
2952 [TODO: mention volume control/Instrument Equaliser]
2957 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
2958 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
2962 * MIDI instrument names::
2967 @subsection MIDI block
2971 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
2972 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
2976 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
2977 @item context definitions
2980 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
2984 @cindex context definition
2986 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
2987 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
2988 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
2991 @node MIDI instrument names
2992 @subsection MIDI instrument names
2994 @cindex instrument names
2995 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
2996 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
2998 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
2999 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3000 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3001 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3005 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3006 default piano. It is not possible to select an instrument by number.
3018 @section Music entry
3026 One of the applications of LilyPond is to enter music from existing
3027 written or printed material. When you're doing this kind of copying
3028 work, you can easily make mistakes. This section deals with tricks and
3029 features that help you enter music, and find and correct mistakes.
3033 @subsection Relative
3035 @cindex relative octave specification
3037 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3038 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3039 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3040 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3042 @cindex @code{\relative}
3044 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3047 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3048 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3049 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less.
3050 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can then
3051 be added to raise or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering
3052 relative mode, an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will
3053 act as the predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3055 This distance is determined without regarding accidentals: a
3056 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3059 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3060 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3066 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3067 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3069 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
3072 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
3073 to determine the first note of the next chord. But other notes
3074 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
3077 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3084 @cindex @code{\notes}
3086 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a notename. To parse
3087 the pitch as a notename, you have to be in note mode, so there must
3088 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
3091 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
3092 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
3093 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
3094 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
3099 @subsection Bar check
3103 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
3107 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
3108 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
3109 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
3110 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
3111 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
3113 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}
3117 @c . {Point and click}
3118 @node Point and click
3119 @subsection Point and click
3121 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
3122 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
3123 error in the sheet music.
3125 To use it, you need the following software
3129 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
3130 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
3132 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
3133 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
3134 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
3139 Add one these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
3140 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
3141 patching @code{emacsclient}.
3144 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
3145 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
3148 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
3153 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
3154 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
3155 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
3156 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
3157 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
3158 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
3159 (eg. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
3160 init file, beifore invoking server-start.
3163 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
3167 Xdvi must be configured to use the emacs editor. Before starting, set
3168 the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} to
3170 emacsclient --no-wait +%c:%l %f
3172 Xdvi also must be configured to find the fonts. Refer to the
3173 xdvi documentation for more information.
3175 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
3176 line and column. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all clickable boxes.
3180 When you convert the TeX file to PostScript using dvips, dvips
3181 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints are
3182 harmless, and can be ignored.
3185 @node Interpretation context
3186 @section Interpretation context
3189 * Notation Contexts::
3190 * Creating contexts::
3191 * Default contexts::
3192 * Context properties::
3193 * Changing context definitions::
3194 * Defining new contexts::
3198 @c . {Notation Contexts}
3199 @node Notation Contexts
3200 @subsection Notation Contexts
3202 @cindex notation contexts
3204 Notation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of LilyPond.
3205 During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
3206 "interpreting music"), the music expresiion in a @code{\score} block is
3207 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
3210 During this interpretation, the notation context is holds the state for
3211 the current point within the music. It contains information like
3214 @item What notes are playing at this point?
3215 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
3216 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
3220 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @code{Voice} context is
3221 contained in a @code{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
3222 multiple voices at any point), a @code{Staff} context is contained in
3223 a @code{Score}, @code{StaffGroup}, or @code{ChoirStaff} context (because
3224 these can all contain multiple staffs).
3227 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
3228 contexts}, those for sound output are called performance contexts.
3231 @node Creating contexts
3232 @subsection Creating contexts
3234 @cindex @code{\context}
3235 @cindex context selection
3237 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
3238 following music expression.
3241 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
3244 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
3245 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
3246 context does not exist, it will be created.
3250 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3252 \notes \relative c'' {
3253 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
3260 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
3261 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
3262 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
3263 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
3264 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
3265 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
3266 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
3270 @node Default contexts
3271 @subsection Default contexts
3273 Most music expressions don't need @code{\context}: they inherit the
3274 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
3275 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
3276 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
3278 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3279 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
3282 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
3285 First, every top-level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
3286 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
3289 \context Score @var{music}
3293 Second, sequential music follows the contexts of its
3294 ``children''. Consider the following example.
3296 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3297 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
3300 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
3301 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
3302 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
3303 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
3304 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
3305 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
3307 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
3308 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
3311 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3312 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
3315 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
3316 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
3318 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3319 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
3324 @node Context properties
3325 @subsection Context properties
3327 Notation contexts can be modified from within the @file{.ly} file. The
3328 following music expression does that job:
3330 @cindex @code{\property}
3332 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
3335 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
3336 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
3337 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
3339 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
3340 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
3341 @code{Voice} context can be set in the @code{Score} context (for
3342 example) and thus take effect in all @code{Voice} contexts.
3344 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
3346 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
3349 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
3350 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
3351 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
3356 @code{\property \unset} is not the inverse of @code{\property \set}
3361 @c . {Context definitions}
3362 @node Changing context definitions
3363 @subsection Changing context definitions
3365 @cindex context definition
3366 @cindex translator definition
3368 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
3369 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
3370 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
3374 @var{context-identifier}
3377 Then you can add engravers, remove engravers.
3378 The syntax for these operations are respectively
3380 \remove @var{engravername}
3381 \consists @var{engravername}
3385 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
3388 @var{propname} = @var{value}
3392 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3396 \translator { \StaffContext
3397 \remove Clef_engraver;
3403 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
3406 @var{propname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme
3409 @var{propname} = @var{value}
3410 @var{propname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3411 @var{propname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3412 @var{propname} \revert @var{symbol}
3416 These type of property assignments happen before interpretation starts,
3417 so a @code{\property} expression will override any predefined settings.
3420 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
3421 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
3422 @code{VoiceContext}.
3424 @node Defining new contexts
3425 @subsection Defining new contexts
3427 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
3428 following extra information:
3430 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname};}.
3432 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
3439 \type "Engraver_group_engraver";
3440 \name "SimpleStaff";
3442 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver";
3443 \consists "Note_head_engraver";
3444 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver";
3448 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
3449 special C++ classes.
3451 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
3452 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
3453 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
3454 for this engraver are the following:
3456 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
3457 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
3458 The standard cooperation engraver.
3460 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
3462 @item @code{Score_engraver}
3463 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
3464 and only the toplevel context.
3466 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
3468 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
3469 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
3470 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to created an embedded
3477 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name} @code{;}
3478 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
3479 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
3481 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername} @code{;}
3482 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
3483 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
3486 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
3487 insures they are put there, and stay there, if a user adds or
3488 removes engravers. This command is usually not needed for
3491 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname} @code{;}
3492 Add @var{contextname} to the list of context this context can
3493 contain. The first listed context is the context to create by
3496 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
3497 completeness, but is never used in practice.
3500 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname} @code{;}
3501 This sets name of the context, e.g. @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}. If
3502 the name is not specified, the translator won't do anything.
3505 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
3506 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
3507 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
3508 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
3514 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
3521 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
3529 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
3536 @c . {Syntactic details}
3537 @node Syntactic details
3538 @section Syntactic details
3539 @cindex Syntactic details
3541 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
3546 * Music expressions::
3547 * Manipulating music expressions::
3555 @subsection Top level
3558 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
3562 @subsubsection Score
3565 @cindex score definition
3567 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
3568 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
3571 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
3574 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
3575 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
3579 @c . {Default output}
3580 @subsubsection Default output
3582 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
3583 entering such a block at top-level.
3586 @subsubsection Header
3588 @cindex @code{\header}
3591 A header describes bibilographic information of the file's contents. It
3592 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
3593 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
3594 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
3595 metre, arranger, piece and tagline.
3597 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
3601 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1};
3602 @var{key2} = @var{val2}; @dots{} @}
3605 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
3607 @subsubsection Default output
3609 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top-level sets the default
3611 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
3615 @subsection Identifiers
3618 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is represented as a
3619 Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types (such as pair,
3620 number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of specialized data types,
3627 @item Translator_def
3631 @item Music_output_def
3632 @item Moment (rational number)
3635 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
3636 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
3637 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
3638 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
3639 during a lilypond run.
3642 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
3643 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
3644 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
3646 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
3647 not yet user accessible.
3648 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
3653 @node Music expressions
3654 @subsection Music expressions
3656 @cindex music expressions
3658 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
3659 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
3660 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
3661 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
3662 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
3663 quarter note @code{d}:
3666 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
3669 @cindex Sequential music
3670 @cindex @code{\sequential}
3671 @cindex sequential music
3674 @cindex Simultaneous music
3675 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
3677 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
3681 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
3682 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
3684 For both, there is a shorthand:
3686 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
3690 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
3692 for simultaneous music.
3693 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
3694 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
3695 are expressed in two different ways:
3697 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3698 \notes \context Voice {
3699 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
3700 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
3705 Other compound music expressions include
3708 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
3709 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
3710 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
3711 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
3715 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
3716 @node Manipulating music expressions
3717 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
3719 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
3720 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
3721 directly on it. The syntax is
3723 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
3725 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
3726 @var{func} should return a music expression.
3728 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
3729 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
3730 about how music is stored.
3732 #(define (testfunc x)
3733 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
3734 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
3736 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
3737 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
3742 \apply #testfunc { c4_"foo" }
3746 For more information on what is possible, see the @ref{Tricks} and the
3747 automatically generated documentation.
3750 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
3751 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
3756 @c . {Span requests}
3762 @subsubsection Span requests
3763 @cindex Span requests
3765 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
3766 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
3770 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
3774 @cindex @code{\start}
3775 @cindex @code{\stop}
3777 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
3778 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
3779 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
3780 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
3782 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3783 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
3784 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
3787 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
3788 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
3789 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
3790 file @file{spanners.ly}.
3795 @subsection Assignments
3798 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
3799 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
3800 and to refer to an identifier, you preceed its name with a backslash:
3801 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
3802 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
3803 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
3805 Semicolons are forbidden after top level assignments, but mandatory in
3806 other places. The rules about semicolons and assignments are very
3807 confusing, but when LilyPond input evolves more towards Scheme, we hope
3808 that this problem will grow smaller.
3810 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
3811 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
3812 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
3813 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
3815 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
3816 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
3817 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
3823 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
3824 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
3825 first item in a block.
3829 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
3833 \paperIdent % correct
3838 @c . {Lexical modes}
3840 @subsection Lexical modes
3841 @cindex Lexical modes
3844 @cindex @code{\notes}
3845 @cindex @code{\chords}
3846 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3848 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
3849 special input modes on top of the default mode: note, lyrics and chords
3850 mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted words are
3851 interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be interpreted as a
3852 C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp major triad
3855 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expressions
3857 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
3858 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
3859 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
3862 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
3863 meaning of their arguments. They are just a way to indicate that the
3864 arguments should be parsed in indicated mode. The modes are treated in
3865 more detail in the @ref{Note entry}, @ref{Lyrics} and
3868 You may nest different input modes.
3872 @subsection Ambiguities
3877 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
3881 @item The assignment
3887 can be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
3888 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
3889 containing the syllable `bar'.
3891 @item The assignment
3897 can be interpreted as making an integer identifier
3898 containing -6, or a Request identifier containing the
3899 fingering `6' (with neutral direction).
3901 @item If you do a nested repeat like
3913 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
3914 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
3915 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
3917 @item (an as yet unidentified ambiguity :-)
3921 @c . {Lexical details}
3922 @node Lexical details
3923 @section Lexical details
3925 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
3936 * Version information::
3941 @subsection Comments
3944 @cindex block comment
3945 @cindex line comment
3949 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
3950 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
3951 They cannot be nested.
3954 @subsection Direct Scheme
3958 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
3961 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
3962 internal use. In some places Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
3963 whereever it is allowed,
3967 evaluates the specified Scheme code. If this is used at toplevel, then
3968 the result is discarded. Example:
3970 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
3973 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
3974 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
3975 an integer (namely, 3).
3977 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
3978 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
3979 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
3984 @subsection Keywords
3988 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
3989 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
3992 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
3993 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
3994 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
3995 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
3996 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
3997 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
3998 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
3999 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
4000 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
4005 @subsection Integers
4013 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
4014 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
4019 @cindex real numbers
4025 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
4026 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
4027 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
4028 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
4029 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
4037 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
4038 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
4039 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
4040 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
4048 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
4049 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
4050 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
4051 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. See
4052 @ref{Lexical modes} for details on unquoted strings; their
4053 interpretation varies depending on the situation. Strings can be
4054 concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
4056 The tokenizer accepts the following commands. They have no grammatical
4057 function, hence they can appear anywhere in the input.
4061 @subsection Main input
4064 @cindex @code{\maininput}
4066 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
4067 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
4069 @node File inclusion
4070 @subsection File inclusion
4071 @cindex @code{\include}
4073 \include @var{filename}
4076 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
4077 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
4078 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
4081 @node Version information
4082 @subsection Version information
4083 @cindex @code{\version}
4085 \version @var{string} ;
4088 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
4089 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
4090 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
4091 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
4092 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
4101 @c .{Local emacs vars}
4104 @c minor-mode: font-lock
4105 @c minor-mode: outline
4106 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
4107 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
4108 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
4109 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
4110 @c outline-override-protect: t