1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
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14 Tutorial guidelines: (different from policy.txt!)
15 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
16 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
18 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
20 Don't use any other relative=X commands.
22 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "es". I know it's not
23 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
24 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
26 - Add "Music Glossary: @rglos{foo}" to the *top* of the relevant
27 portions of the tutorial.
33 @chapter Common notation
35 This chapter explains how to create beautiful printed music
36 containing common musical notation, following the material in
40 * Single staff notation::
41 * Multiple notes at once::
47 @node Single staff notation
48 @section Single staff notation
50 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
55 * Accidentals and key signatures::
57 * Articulation and dynamics::
59 * Automatic and manual beams::
60 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
65 @subsection Bar checks
67 Though not strictly necessary, @emph{bar checks} should be
68 used in the input code to show where bar lines are expected
69 to fall. They are entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}.
70 With bar checks, the program can verify that you've entered
71 durations that make each measure add up to the correct
72 length. Bar checks also make your input code easier to
73 read, since they help to keep things organized.
75 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
76 g1 | e1 | c2. c'4 | g4 c g e | c4 r r2 |
81 @ruser{Bar and bar number checks}.
84 @node Accidentals and key signatures
85 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
87 @warning{New users are often confused by these -- please read the
88 warning at the bottom of this page, especially if you are not
89 familiar with music theory!}
91 @subheading Accidentals
94 @cindex accidentals and key signatures
107 Music Glossary: @rglos{sharp}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{double sharp},
108 @rglos{double flat}, @rglos{accidental}.
110 A @notation{sharp} pitch is made by adding @code{is} to the name,
111 and a @notation{flat} pitch by adding @code{es}. As you might
112 expect, a @notation{double sharp} or @notation{double flat} is
113 made by adding @code{isis} or @code{eses}. This syntax is derived
114 from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
115 like German and Dutch. To use other names for
116 @notation{accidentals}, see @ruser{Note names in other languages}.
118 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
119 cis1 ees fisis, aeses
122 @cindex key signature, setting
123 @subheading Key signatures
125 @cindex key signature
128 @cindex accidentals and key signature
129 @cindex content vs. layout
130 @cindex layout vs. content
139 Music Glossary: @rglos{key signature}, @rglos{major},
142 The @notation{key signature} is set with the command @code{\key}
143 followed by a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
145 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
154 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
156 Music Glossary: @rglos{accidental}, @rglos{key signature},
157 @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{natural}, @rglos{sharp},
158 @rglos{transposition}.
160 To determine whether to print an @notation{accidental}, LilyPond
161 examines the pitches and the @notation{key signature}. The key
162 signature only affects the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the
163 note's @notation{pitch}! This is a feature that often causes
164 confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.
166 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
167 layout. The alteration (@notation{flat}, @notation{natural sign} or
168 @notation{sharp}) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore
169 musical content. Whether an accidental (a @emph{printed} flat,
170 natural or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding
171 note is a question of layout. Layout is something that follows
172 rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to those
173 rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
174 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to
179 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
185 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add
186 @code{is} and type @code{cis} and @code{fis} in the input file.
188 The code @code{b} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just on
189 the middle line of the staff.} Rather, it means @qq{there is a
190 note with pitch B-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
191 @emph{does} get an accidental:
193 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
198 If the above seems confusing, consider this: if you were playing a
199 piano, which key would you hit? If you would press a black key,
200 then you @emph{must} add @code{-is} or @code{-es} to the note
203 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
204 effort when typing, but the advantage is that
205 @notation{transposing} is easier, and accidentals can be printed
206 according to different conventions. For some examples of how
207 accidentals can be printed according to different rules, see
208 @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
213 @ruser{Note names in other languages},
215 @ruser{Automatic accidentals},
216 @ruser{Key signature}.
223 @subsection Ties and slurs
227 @cindex slur, phrasing
228 @cindex phrasing slur
237 Music Glossary: @rglos{tie}.
239 A @notation{tie} is created by appending a tilde @code{~} to the
240 first note being tied.
242 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
250 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}.
252 A @notation{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The
253 starting note and ending note are marked with @code{(} and
254 @code{)} respectively.
256 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
257 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
260 @subheading Phrasing slurs
262 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}, @rglos{phrasing}.
264 Slurs to indicate longer @notation{phrasing} can be entered with
265 @code{\(} and @code{\)}. You can have both @notation{slurs}
266 and phrasing slurs at the same time, but you cannot have
267 simultaneous slurs or simultaneous phrasing slurs.
269 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
270 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
275 @cindex slurs versus ties
276 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
278 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}, @rglos{slur}, @rglos{tie}.
280 A @notation{slur} looks like a @notation{tie}, but it has a
281 different meaning. A tie simply makes the first note longer, and
282 can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs
283 indicate the @notation{articulation} of notes, and can be used on
284 larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties can be nested.
286 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
287 c2~( c8 fis fis4~ fis2 g2)
295 @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
298 @node Articulation and dynamics
299 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
302 @subheading Articulations
308 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}.
310 Common @notation{articulations} can be added to a note using a
311 dash @code{-} and a single character:
313 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
314 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
317 @subheading Fingerings
324 Music Glossary: @rglos{fingering}.
326 Similarly, @notation{fingering} indications can be added to a note
327 using a dash (@code{-}) and the digit to be printed:
329 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
333 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
334 you can specify a direction by replacing the dash (@code{-}) with
335 @code{^} (up) or @code{_} (down). You can also use multiple
336 articulations on the same note. However, in most cases it is best
337 to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
339 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
340 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
362 Music Glossary: @rglos{dynamics}, @rglos{crescendo},
365 @notation{Dynamic} signs are made by adding the markings (with a
366 backslash) to the note:
368 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
373 @notation{Crescendi} and @notation{decrescendi} are started with
374 the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}. The next dynamics sign, for
375 example @code{\f}, will end the (de)crescendo, or the command
376 @code{\!} can be used:
378 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
385 @ruser{Articulations and ornamentations},
386 @ruser{Fingering instructions},
391 @subsection Adding text
400 Text may be added to your scores:
402 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
406 Extra formatting may be added with the @code{\markup} command:
408 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
409 c1^\markup{ \bold espr }
411 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
418 @ruser{Writing text}.
421 @node Automatic and manual beams
422 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
425 @cindex automatic beams
427 @cindex beams, automatic
428 @cindex beams, manual
429 @cindex beams, by hand
434 @funindex \autoBeamOff
435 @funindex autoBeamOff
436 @funindex \autoBeamOn
439 Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}.
441 All @notation{beams} are drawn automatically:
443 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
444 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
447 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
448 manually. To correct just an occasional beam mark the first note
449 to be beamed with @code{[} and the last one with @code{]}.
451 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
452 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
455 If you want to turn off automatic beaming entirely or for an
456 extended section of music, use the command @code{\autoBeamOff}
457 to turn off automatic beaming and @code{\autoBeamOn} to turn it
460 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
470 @ruser{Automatic beams},
471 @ruser{Manual beams}.
474 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
475 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
477 @subheading Partial measure
481 @cindex partial measure
486 Music Glossary: @rglos{anacrusis}.
488 A pickup (or @notation{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
489 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
490 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
492 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
505 Music Glossary: @rglos{note value}, @rglos{triplet}.
507 @notation{Tuplets} are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It
508 takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The
509 duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction.
510 Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a
511 @notation{triplet} has 2/3 as its fraction
513 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
514 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
516 \times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
520 @subheading Grace notes
528 @funindex \acciaccatura
529 @funindex acciaccatura
530 @funindex \appoggiatura
531 @funindex acciaccatura
533 Music Glossary: @rglos{grace notes}, @rglos{acciaccatura},
534 @rglos{appoggiatura}.
536 @notation{Grace notes} are created with the @code{\grace} command,
537 although they can also be created by prefixing a music expression
538 with the keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}:
540 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
541 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
542 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
543 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
554 @node Multiple notes at once
555 @section Multiple notes at once
557 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
558 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
559 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
561 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
562 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
563 than one voice on the same staff.
566 * Music expressions explained::
569 * Combining notes into chords::
570 * Single staff polyphony::
574 @node Music expressions explained
575 @subsection Music expressions explained
577 @cindex music expression
578 @cindex expression, music
579 @cindex compound music expression
580 @cindex music expression, compound
582 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
583 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
585 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
589 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
590 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
593 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
597 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
598 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
599 one). The result is another music expression:
601 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
605 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
607 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
608 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
609 expressions, and they can contain other expressions, so you can
610 make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
619 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
622 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
623 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
624 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
625 operators (like @code{+}, @code{*} and @code{/}) and parentheses.
626 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
627 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
631 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
633 @cindex multiple staves
634 @cindex staves, multiple
636 @cindex combining expressions in parallel
637 @cindex parallel expressions
638 @cindex expressions, parallel
639 @cindex relative notes and simultaneous music
640 @cindex relative notes and parallel expressions
641 @cindex simultaneous music and relative notes
642 @cindex parallel expressions and relative notes
648 Music Glossary: @rglos{polyphony}.
650 This technique is useful for @notation{polyphonic} music. To
651 enter music with more voices or more staves, we combine
652 expressions in parallel. To indicate that two voices should play
653 at the same time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
654 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
655 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
656 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
657 notes) are combined simultaneously:
659 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
669 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
670 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
671 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
672 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
674 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
675 the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
676 @code{@bs{}relative} command.}
679 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
681 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
682 the beginning of the first expression. If there is a single note,
683 there is one staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there
684 is more than one staff. The following example shows a complex
685 expression, but as it begins with a single note it will be set
686 out on a single staff.
688 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
691 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
695 @node Multiple staves
696 @subsection Multiple staves
698 @cindex multiple staves
699 @cindex staves, multiple
701 @cindex context, notation
702 @cindex notation context
714 LilyPond input files are constructed out of music expressions, as
715 we saw in @ref{Music expressions explained}. If the score begins
716 with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates multiples
717 staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we create
718 each staff explicitly.
720 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
721 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
722 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
725 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
728 \new Staff { \clef treble c }
729 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
734 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
735 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
736 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
737 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
738 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
740 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
741 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
742 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
744 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
745 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
746 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
747 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
749 Time signatures entered in one staff affect all other staves by
750 default. On the other hand, the key signature of one staff does
751 @emph{not} affect other staves. This different default behavior
752 is because scores with transposing instruments are more common
753 than polyrhythmic scores.
755 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
758 \new Staff { \clef treble \key d \major \time 3/4 c }
759 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
768 @subsection Staff groups
782 Music Glossary: @rglos{brace}.
784 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a
786 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
787 @ref{Multiple staves}. However, now this entire expression is
788 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
797 Here is a small example:
799 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
802 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
803 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
808 Other staff groupings are introduced with @code{\new GrandStaff},
809 suitable for orchestral scores, and @w{@code{\new ChoirStaff}},
810 suitable for vocal scores. These staff groups each form another
811 type of context, one that generates the brace at the left end of
812 every system and also controls the extent of bar lines.
817 @ruser{Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments},
818 @ruser{Displaying staves}.
821 @node Combining notes into chords
822 @subsection Combining notes into chords
825 @cindex note durations in chords
831 Music Glossary: @rglos{chord}.
833 We saw earlier how notes can be combined into @notation{chords} by
834 indicating they are simultaneous by enclosing them in double angle
835 brackets. However, the normal way of indicating a chord is to
836 surround the pitches with @emph{single} angle brackets. Note that
837 all the notes in a chord must have the same duration, and that the
838 duration is placed after the closing bracket.
840 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
844 Think of chords as almost equivalent to single notes:
845 almost everything you can attach to a single note can be attached
846 to a chord, and everything must go @emph{outside} the angle
847 brackets. For example, you can combine markings like beams and
848 ties with chords. They must be placed outside the angle brackets.
850 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
851 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
852 r4 <c e g>8( <c e g>\> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
856 @node Single staff polyphony
857 @subsection Single staff polyphony
860 @cindex multiple voices
861 @cindex voices, more on one staff
862 @cindex single staff polyphony
866 @funindex << ... \\ ... >>
871 Polyphonic music in lilypond, while not difficult, uses concepts
872 that we haven't discussed yet, so we're not going to introduce
873 them here. Instead, the following sections introduce these concepts
874 and explain them thoroughly.
878 @ref{Voices contain music}.
881 @ruser{Simultaneous notes}.
886 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
889 * Setting simple songs::
890 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
891 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
895 @node Setting simple songs
896 @subsection Setting simple songs
904 Music Glossary: @rglos{lyrics}.
906 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
907 rhyme, @notation{Girls and boys come out to play}:
909 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
917 The @notation{lyrics} can be set to these notes, combining both
918 with the @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by
919 separating each syllable with a space.
921 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
929 Girls and boys come out to play,
934 Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics.
935 It is essential that the final syllable is separated from the
936 terminating curly bracket by a space or a newline, or it will be
937 assumed to be part of the syllable, giving rise to an obscure
938 error, see @rprogram{Apparent error in ../ly/init.ly}.
940 Note also the double angle brackets @w{@code{<< ... >>}} around the
941 whole piece to show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the
944 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
945 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
948 @cindex extender line
951 @cindex lyrics, aligning
952 @cindex aligning lyrics
953 @cindex lyrics, multi-syllable words
954 @cindex words with multiple syllables in lyrics
956 Music Glossary: @rglos{melisma}, @rglos{extender line}.
958 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @notation{The moon doth
959 shine as bright as day}. Let's extend it:
961 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
967 g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
970 Girls and boys come out to play,
971 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
976 We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes. The
977 word @notation{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one. This
978 is called a @notation{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more
979 than one note. There are several ways to spread a syllable over
980 multiple notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them, for
981 details, see @ref{Ties and slurs}:
983 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
989 g8 a4 b8 c( b) a d4 b8 g4.
992 Girls and boys come out to play,
993 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
998 The words now line up correctly with the notes, but the automatic
999 beaming for the notes above @notation{shine as} does not look right.
1000 We can correct this by inserting manual beaming commands to override
1001 the automatic beaming here, for details, see @ref{Automatic and
1004 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1009 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1010 g8 a4 b8 c([ b]) a d4 b8 g4.
1013 Girls and boys come out to play,
1014 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1019 As an alternative to using slurs, the melismata may be indicated
1020 in just the lyrics by using an underscore @code{_} for each note
1021 that should be included in the melisma:
1023 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1028 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1029 g8 a4 b8 c[ b] a d4 b8 g4.
1032 Girls and boys come out to play,
1033 The moon doth shine _ as bright as day;
1038 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1039 note an @notation{extender line} is usually drawn from the
1040 syllable extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is
1041 entered as two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the
1042 first three bars of @notation{Dido's Lament}, from Purcell's
1043 @notation{Dido and Æneas}:
1045 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1051 b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
1055 am laid __ in earth,
1060 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1061 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1062 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1063 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1064 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1065 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1067 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1068 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1069 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1075 d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
1079 A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
1080 no __ crib for a bed, __
1085 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1086 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1087 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1088 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in quotes.
1089 Here's an example from Rossini's @notation{Figaro}, where
1090 @notation{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @notation{go} of
1091 @notation{Largo} in Figaro's aria @notation{Largo al factotum}:
1093 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1094 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1095 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1101 c4.~ c8 d b c([ d]) b c d b c
1104 Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tÃ
1112 @ruser{Vocal music}.
1115 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1116 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1118 @cindex lyrics and multiple staves
1119 @cindex multiple staves and lyrics
1121 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1122 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1123 example from Handel's @notation{Judas Maccabæus}:
1125 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1131 c8 c([ bes]) a a([ g]) f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
1134 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
1140 r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g]) f f([ e]) d e([ d]) c bes'4
1143 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
1148 Scores any more complex than this simple example are better
1149 produced by separating out the score structure from the notes and
1150 lyrics with variables. These are discussed in @ref{Organizing
1151 pieces with variables}.
1156 @ruser{Vocal music}.
1160 @section Final touches
1162 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1163 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1164 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1167 * Organizing pieces with variables::
1169 * Absolute note names::
1170 * After the tutorial::
1174 @node Organizing pieces with variables
1175 @subsection Organizing pieces with variables
1178 @cindex variables, defining
1181 @cindex assigning variables
1182 @cindex using variables
1183 @cindex variables, using
1184 @cindex variables, characters allowed in
1185 @cindex characters allowed in variables
1187 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1188 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1189 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1190 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1193 With variables (also known as identifiers or macros), we can break
1194 up complex music expressions. A variable is assigned as
1198 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1201 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1202 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1203 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1205 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1206 violin = \new Staff {
1211 cello = \new Staff {
1226 The name of a variable must have alphabetic characters only, no
1227 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1229 Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1230 expression, but may be used as many times as required anywhere after
1231 they have been defined. They may even be used in a later definition
1232 of another variable, giving a way of shortening the input if a
1233 section of music is repeated many times.
1235 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1236 tripletA = \times 2/3 { c,8 e g }
1237 barA = { \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA }
1244 Variables may be used for many other types of objects in
1245 the input. For example,
1250 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1253 Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
1254 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1268 @subsection Adding titles
1272 @cindex header block
1277 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1278 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1279 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1280 underneath the version number.
1283 \version @w{"@version{}"}
1291 @dots{} music @dots{}
1295 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1296 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1297 @ruser{Creating titles}.
1300 @node Absolute note names
1301 @subsection Absolute note names
1304 @cindex note names, absolute
1305 @cindex absolute mode
1306 @cindex absolute values for pitches
1307 @cindex pitches, absolute values
1308 @cindex absolute note names
1310 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1311 This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
1312 defining pitches exists: absolute mode.
1314 If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
1315 absolute values. A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
1316 @code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
1317 @code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
1320 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1328 Here is a four-octave scale:
1330 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1345 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1346 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1348 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1352 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
1353 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
1357 All these quotes makes the input less readable and they are a source
1358 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1359 easier to read and type:
1361 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1365 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
1370 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1371 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1372 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1373 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1376 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1377 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1382 @node After the tutorial
1383 @subsection After the tutorial
1385 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1386 piece or two. Start by adding notes to one of the
1387 @ref{Templates}. If you need any notation that was not covered in
1388 the tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1389 @ruser{Musical notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1390 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1391 @ref{Extending the templates}.
1393 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1394 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1395 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1396 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1397 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1398 you have more experience.
1400 In this tutorial and in the rest of the Learning Manual, there is a
1401 paragraph @strong{See also} at the end of each section, which contains
1402 cross-references to other sections: you should not follow these
1403 cross-references at first reading; when you have read all of the
1404 Learning Manual, you may want to read some sections again and follow
1405 cross-references for further reading.
1407 If you have not done so already, @emph{please} read @ref{Overview
1408 of manuals}. There is a lot of information about LilyPond, so
1409 newcomers often do not know where they should look for help. If
1410 you spend five minutes reading that section carefully, you might
1411 save yourself hours of frustration looking in the wrong places!